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CASSELL'S 

Carpentry and Joinery 



CASSELL'S 



Carpentry and Joinery 

COMPRISING NOTES ON MATERIALS, PROCESSES, PRINCIPLES, 

AND PRACTICE, INCLUDING ABOUT 1,800 ENGRAVINGS 

AND TWELVE PLATES 



EDITED BY 



PAUL N. HASLUCK 

Editor of ''Building World, 1 ' etc. 



PHILADELPHIA 

DAVID McKAY, Publisher 

610, SOUTH WASHINGTON SQUARE 
1907 



?S?3 



Ji 



T^ 



^foO'V 




PREFACE. 

Cassell's Carpentry and Joinery is a practical work on practical handicrafts, 
and it is published in the confident belief that it is by far the most exhaustive 
book on these subjects hitherto produced. Throughout this book actual practice 
is recorded; mere discussion of theory has been excluded, except where it is 
essential in explaining the principles underlying a method, a process, or the 
action of a tool. The tools and processes described are those commonly found 
in daily use in the workshop. The expert and well-informed reader will of 
course make due allowance for the great diversities of trade practice in 
different localities. 

Much of the matter appearing in these pages has been written and illustrated 
by eminent authorities such as Mr. C. W. D. Boxall, Prof. Henry Adams, 
Mr. F. W. Loasby, and several other well-known practical contributors to 
" Building World." The names of these experts are a guarantee of competency 
and thoroughness. 

Students preparing for examinations in which Carpentry and Joinery are 
involved will welcome this as a text book of the utmost value and importance ; 
and its intensely practical character — in every possible instance the information 
is imparted by investigating, describing, and illustrating cases that have occurred 
in actual experience — renders the work extremely useful as a guide to everyday 
practice, as the volume includes virtually everything that relates to the materials, 
processes, principles, and practice of Carpentry and Joinery. 

The comprehensive scope of the work is evident from a glance at the list 
of contents. Each of the various sections is dealt with in exhaustive detail, 
some of the sections extending to nearly 100 pages ; and the studiously plain 
language used throughout the book is further assisted by the use of skilfully 
drawn diagrams, which are supplemented by twelve full-page coloured plates. 

P. N. HASLUCK. 



CONTENTS 



PAGE 



Hand Tools and Appliances 1 

Timber 26 

Joints 54 

Floors ....... 68 

Timber Partitions . . .98 

Timber Roofs 112 

Framework of Dormer Windows 180 

Half-timber Construction 199 

Gantries, Staging, and Shoring 215 

Arch Centerings 250 

Joiners' Rods 289 

Doors and Door Frames 312 

Window Sashes and Casements . 404 

Mouldings: Working and Setting-out 468 

Skirtings, Dados, Panelwork, Linings, etc 481 

Partitions and Screens 520 

Bevels: Finding and Setting-out 550 

Index ,,,..•. 557 



^— 



LIST OF COLOURED PLATES. 



I. — Circular-Headed Casement Window 

II. — Interior Doorway with Dado 

III. — Boxing Shutters to Sash Window 

IV. — Lantern Light with Gable Ends . 

V. — Carriage Entrance Gates 

VI. — Wooden Framed Stable . . . 

VII. — Newel Staircase with Winders in Half-Space . 

VIII. — Half-Timbered Porch and Entrance Doorway . 

IX. — Construction of a Lean-to Conservatory . 

X. — Design for a Shop Front 

XI. — Cabinet- Work Fixtures for a Small Hotel Bar 

XII. — Construction of a Bell or Ventilating Turret 
Framed to Roof 



Frontispiece 


To face page 


48'' 


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96 7 


„ 


144 




192^ 


„ 


240 


>> 


288 


» 


336 ; 


3J 


384 


)J 


432 •< 


- 


480 


l1 


528 



CARPENTRY and JOINERY. 



HAND TOOLS AND APPLIANCES. 



Introduction. 

The reader of this book is assumed to 
have some acquaintance with woodworking, 
and not to stand in need of detail instruc- 
tion as to the shape, action, care and use 
of each and all of a woodworker's tools. 
This information is given in comprehensive 
style in a companion volume, entitled 
" Woodworking," produced by the Editor 
of this present book, and sold by the same 



testing work — such tools are rules, straight- 
edges, gauges, etc. (2) Tools for supporting 
and holding work ; such tools are benches, 
vices, stools, etc. (3) Paring or shaving 
tools, such as chisels, spokeshaves, planes, 
etc. (4) Saws. (5) Percussion or impel- 
ling tools, such as hammers, mallets, 




Fig. 1.— Twc-foot Rule with Slide Rule. 

publishers at 9s. Should any reader of 
this chapter desire further particulars of 
the tools and appliances here briefly men- 
tioned, he is recommended to consult that 
work, which undoubtedly contains the 
most complete description of woodworking 
tools yet published. 

Classification of Tools. 

Tools may be classed according to their 
functions and modes of action, as follows : 
(1) Geometrical tools for laying off and 



Fig. 2. — Combined Marking 
Awl and Striking Knife. 



screw -drivers, and (combined with cutting) 
hatchets, axes, adzes, etc. (6) Boring 
tools, such as gimlets, brace-bits, etc. 
(7) Abrading and scraping tools, such as 
rasps, scrapers, glasspaper, and implements 
such as whetstones, etc., for sharpening 
edged tools. 

Geometrical Tools. 

Rules. — For all-round purposes a 2-ft. 
four-fold boxwood rule, with or without a 
slide rule (Fig. 1), is best. Kules are made 
in great variety, but the average worker's 
requirements will be best met by a simple one. 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 




Fig. 10. —Cutting Gauge 



HAND TOOLS AND APPLIANCES. 



Marking and Scribing. — The carpenter's 
lead pencil is of a flat, oval section, sharpened 
to a chisel edge, which has a greater body 
of lead than a point, and lasts a reasonable 
time before requiring to be re-sharpened. 
The marking awl and the striking knife, 
shown in Fig. 2 as a combined tool, is 
used by joiners principally for scribing, 
or cutting-in, the shoulders of framing, etc. 
Greater accuracy can be attained and a 
sharper arris is left when sawing than 
when working to a pencil line. 

Straight-edge. — Mechanics in the building 
trades use a straight-edge, usually made 
to the shape shown by Fig. 3, and not larger 
than 15 ft. long, 6 in. wide, and 1J in. thick, 
made from a pine board cut from a straight- 




Fig. 11. — Panel Gauge. 

grown tree. All straight-edges should be 
tested occasionally. 

Squares and Bevels. — These are used for 
setting out and testing work. The joiner's 
steel square is a mere right angle of steel, 
sometimes nickel-plated, graduated in inches, 
J in. and T V in., or otherwise as required. 
The try square (Fig. 4) has a rosewood or 
ebony stock. The tool shown by Fig. 5 is 
also of use in setting out and testing mitres, 
but the proper mitre square is shown by 
Fig. 6. Try squares are also made with 
iron frames which are channelled and per- 
forated to reduce weight. Adjustable 
squares with graduated blades are useful 
in putting fittings on doors and windows. 
By means of the sliding bevel (Fig. 7) 
angles are set off in duplicate ; the set 
screw secures the blade at any desired 
angle with the stock. A crenellated square 
has a blade which is notched at every 
principal graduation, and is used chiefly 
for setting out mortises and tenons. 



Marking Work for Sawing.— The chalk 
line is used for long pieces of timber, the 
pencil and rule for ordinary applications, 
and the scribe for particular work. The 
" chalk line " is a piece of fine cord rubbed 
with chalk or black pigment, and strained 
taut. To mark the work the chalk line is 
lifted vertically and near the centre, and 
when released makes a fine and perfectly 
straight line upon the work. Coloured 
chalks and pigments are also used. 

Marking and Cutting Gauges. — Ordinarily 
the carpenter draws a line close to and 
parallel to the edge of a board by means 
of a rule held in one hand, with the fore- 




Fig. 12. — Wing 
Compasses. 



Fig. 13. — Spring 
Dividers. 



finger against the edge of the work and the 
pencil held close against the end of the rule ; 
but the marking gauge (Fig. 8) gives more 
accurate results. The gauge may have a 
pencil point instead of the steel point 
shown. Developments are the mortise 
gauge (Fig. 9) and the cutting gauge (Fig. 
10), having either a square or oval sliding 
stock or head. The panel gauge (Fig. 11) is 
used to mark a line parallel to the true edge 
of a panel or of any piece of wood too wide for 
the ordinary gauge to take in. 

Compasses, Dividers, and Callipers. — 
Ordinary wing compasses (Fig. 12) are 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY 



generally used, but for particular work in- 
struments with fine or sensitive adjustments 
are obtainable. Spring dividers (Fig. 13) 
are used for stepping off a number of equal 
distances, for transferring measurements and 
for scribing. Callipers (Figs. 14 and 15), ob- 
tainable in many styles, are used for 




for shooting or planing the mitred ends 
of stuff previously sawn in the mitre block 
or box ; in the illustration the rebate or 
bed for the work is cut out of the solid, 
but it is general to build up the block 
with three thicknesses of stuff, and so avoid 
cutting a rebate. The donkey's-ear shoot- 
ing block (Fig. 19) is used for mitreing or 
bevelling the edges of wide but thin material 
with the cut at right angles to that adopted 
for stouter mouldings ; another form of 




Fig. 14.— Outside 
Callipers. 



Fig. 15. — Inside 
Callipers. 



measuring diameters of cylindrical solids 
and recesses. 

Shooting Boards. — The shooting board 
(Fig. 16) is used for trueing up with a 
plane the edges of square stuff. That 
shown is the simplest possible, but other 
and improved shapes are obtainable. 

Appliances for Mitreing. — The simplest 
appliance used in cutting mitres is the 
ordinary mitre block, the work being laid 






-■ - 



Fig. 17.— Mitre Box with 
Dovetail Saw. 



upon a rebate, and saw kerfs in the upper 
block serving as a guide for the tenon saw. 
Inclined and other varieties of mitre blocks 
are in use. The mitre box (Fig. 17) is 
generally used for broader mouldings. 
The mitre shooting block (Fig. 18) is used 



Fig. 16. — Shooting Board. 

this block (Fig. 20) has a rest a for the 
material, a bed b for the shooting plane, 
a guide c for the plane, and a frame d 
which is fixed in the bench screw or to 
the tail of the bench. The mitre template 
(Fig. 21) is another aid to cutting mitres. 
Its use will be explained on a later page. 

Spirit Levels. — The spirit level is used for 
determining the planes of the horizon — that 
is, the plane forming a right angle to the 
vertical plane. A frame firmly holds a 
closed glass tube nearly filled with an- 
hydrous ether, or with a mixture of ether 
and alcohol (see Fig. 22). Good spirit 
levels have a graduated scale engraved on 
the glass tube or on a metal rule fastened 
to the frame beside it. There are many 
varieties of spirit levels, but all are made 
on the same principle. 




Fig. 18.— Mitre Shooting Block. 



Plumb Rule and Square. — The plumb rule 
(Fig. 23) is used by the carpenter and fixer 
for testing the vertical position of pieces 
of timber, framing, doorposts, sash frames, 
etc., which should be fixed upright. The 
plumb square (Fig. 24) is useful for testing 



HAND TOOLS AND APPLIANCES. 



the squareness of work and at the same 
time the levelness of a head, it being for 
this purpose sometimes more useful than 
a spirit level. 




worker and by the kind of work to be done. 
A joiner's bench of the usual pattern 
is shown by Fig. 25. It is 12 ft. long, by 
2 ft. 6 in. wide, and 3 ft. high. The legs 
are 4 in. by 4 in. ; bearers and rails, 4 in. by 



Fig. 19.— Donkey's-ear Shooting Block. 

h — 3^2— - 






Fig. 20. — Donkey's-ear Block for Shooting Wide 
Surfaces. 




Spirit Level. 



1 




Fig. 21. — Mitre Template. 



Fig. 23.— Plumb 
Rule. 



Tools for Supporting and Holding 
Work. 

Benches. — The ordinary joiner's bench 
should not be less than about 8 ft. long, 2 ft. 
6 in. to 3 ft. high, and 2 ft. 6 in. wide, and 
should be fitted with wood or iron bench 
screws so as to accommodate one or two 

workers. Of course, the height of the bench 3 in. ; sides, 1J in. by 9 in. ; top, 1| in. by 
will be influenced by the stature of the 9 in. The bench top is mortised at A to 




Fig. 24.— Plumb Square 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 




Fig. 25.— Ordinary Pattern Joiner's Bench. 




Fig. 26.— Ordinary Joiner's Bench fitted with Instantaneous Vice. 



HAND TOOLS AND APPLIANCES. 



receive the stop, which is of the pattern 
shown by Fig. 32, so that it fits tightly 
against the leg of the bench. Fig. 26 shows 
a joiner's bench of another pattern, fitted 
with a good form of instantaneous grip 
vice ; and another variety of this useful 



fits the runner shown inside it, is fixed to 
the top rail connecting the legs, and to 
the top and side of the bench. Care is 
taken to keep the runner at right angles 




Fig. 27.— Bench with Side and Tail Vices. 

class of vice is shown in section at Fig. 31. 
A bench with side and tail vices is illus- 
trated at Fig. 27, and, although not much 
used by joiners, is a very useful form for 
small work or as a portable bench. The 
top and tail vice cheeks contain holes for 
the reception of bench stops of iron or wood, 
against which, or between which, work is 
held for framing, etc. 



Fig. 28. — Wooden Bench Screw Vice. 

to the vice cheeks. To fasten the vice 
outer cheek and screw together, so that 
upon turning the latter the former will 
follow it, a groove e is cut. Then from 
the under edge of the cheek a mortise is 
made, and a hardwood key is driven to 
fit fairly tight into the mortise, its end 




Fig. 29. — Inside View of Screw Vice. 

Bench Screws. — A common form of joiner's 
bench screw is shown by Fig. 28, inside 
and sectional views being shown respectively 
by Figs. 29 and 30. d is the side or cheek 
of the bench to which a wooden nut (a) 
is screwed. The box b, which accurately 



Fig. 30. — Section through Screw Vice. 

entering e. The screw cheek is usually 
about 1 ft. 9 in. long, 9 in. wide, and 2 in. 
to 3 in. thick. The runner is about 3 in. 
by 3 in. and 2 ft. long. The wooden screws 
and nuts can be bought ready made. 
Bench screws are known in great variety, 



8 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



and include an instantaneous grip vice (Fig. 
31), a most useful appliance. 

Bench Stops. — There are many varieties 
of iron bench stops on the market, but 



the ordinary " knock up " stop, which is 
a piece of hard wood about 2 in. to 2J in. 
square, and 9 in. to 18 in. long, fitting 
tightly into a mortise in the top of the 




Fig. 31. — Instantaneous Grip Vice. 



f=} 




Fig. 32. — Wooden Bench 
Stop. 



Figs. 33 and 34. — Wooden Bench Stop. 




Fig. 35. — Hinge used as Bench Stop. 

bench, is still largely used. This is the 
best form of stop for all ordinary purposes. 
It is cut wedge shape, as shown by Fig. 32. 
This stop is raised and lowered by knocking 




Fig. 36.— Iron 
Bench Stop. 



Fig. 38.— Morrill's Adjust- 
able Bench Stop. 



Fig. 37. — Adjustable Iron Bench Stop. 

with a hammer at top or bottom. The 
plane is not injured if it comes into con- 
tact with the stop, which also has greater 
strength than temporary stops screwed 
to the face of the "bench top. An improved 






HAND TOOLS AND APPLIANCES. 



form of this is shown at Figs. 33 and 34. 
A block is screwed to the stop, and to this 
the nut of an ordinary shutter bolt is 
fixed. A slot is cut in the cheek of the 
bench, as shown. The shoulder of the bolt 
works against a large washer. This stop can 
readily be raised or lowered. Two or three 
steel nails driven in near the top of the stop 
and filed to form teeth can be used to hold 
the work. A very useful stop may be con- 
trived, as shown by Fig. 35, by filing one 
end of a back flap hinge so as to form teeth, 
the other flap being screwed down to the 
bench. A long screw through the middle 
hole in the loose flap affords means of 
adjustment. By loosening this long screw, 
the front edge of the stop may be raised, 




Fig. 39. — Sawing Stool. 

but to retain it in its position it should 
be packed up with a piece of wood, and 
the screw tightened down again. A plain 
iron stop with a side spring to keep it at 
any desired height is shown by Fig. 36. 
This form of stop fits into holes mortised 
through the bench top. Figs. 37 and 38 
show good forms of adjustable bench stops 
that are obtainable from tool-dealers ; their 
principle is fairly obvious on reference to 
the illustrations. 

Sawing Stools or Trestles. — The three-leg 
sawing stool is of but little service and 
almost useless for supporting work in 
course of sawing. Probably one of the best 
forms of this useful appliance is the four- 
legged stool shown by Fig. 39. This needs 
to be built substantially. 

Cramps. — A hold-fast for temporarily 
securing work to the bench is shown by 
Fig. 40. The old-fashioned hand-screw cramp 



(Fig. 41) is made of wood entirely. It is 
a very useful tool in the joiner's shop, 
and is used for holding together pieces of 
wood when glued for thicknessing up. It is 
indispensable when glueing up face veneers 
for shop fittings, etc. ; these screws are 
made in different sizes suitable for heavy 
and light work. Iron G-cramps are a very 
useful form, the smaller sizes being made 
with a thumbscrew (Fig. 42) and being used 
for light purposes. The stronger and larger 
kinds will take in work up to 12 in. ; greater 




Fig. 40.— Bench Holdfast. 



force being required, the screws are rotated 
by means of the usual lever. The many 
varieties of iron cramps include the Hammer 
instantaneous adjustment cramp and a slid- 
ing pattern G-cramp, both of which have 
advantages in many cases over the common 
G-cramp, a form of which, with thumbscrew, 
is illustrated by Fig. 42 (p. 10). Sash 
cramps and joiner's cramps (also shown on 
p. 10 — see Fig. 43) are in common use, a num- 
ber of patent cramps with special advan- 
tages also being known. Figs. 44 and 45 
show a useful cramp for thin work. The 
wedge cramp (Fig. 46), known as a cleat, is 
also very useful for holding boards together 
after they have been jointed and glued. The 
cleats are kept on till the glue in the joint 
is dry. The wedges prevent the board from 
casting. Iron dogs (Figs. 47 and 48) are 



10 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY 





Fig. 41. — Wooden 
Hand Screw 
Cramp. 



Fig. 42. — Iron G- 
Cramp with Thumb- 
screw. 





45. 



Figs. 44 and 45.— Wooden Cramp for Thin Work. 



Fig. 43. — Iron Sash Cramp or Joiners' Cramp. 

used for driving into the ends of boards 
which have been jointed and glued, to pull 
together the joint, and for similar purposes 
by the joiner. They are also used for draw- 
ing together face joints when glued, but 
only in cases where the holes made by the 
dogs are to be covered afterwards by another 
piece of lining. A stronger form is also 
sometimes used by the carpenter for 
common flooring. The dog is driven into 
the joist firmly, there being enough space 
between the dog and the edge of the floor- 
board to admit a pair of folding wedges, 






HAND TOOLS AND APPLIANCES. 



11 



which are then driven tight home, and the 
floorboards nailed down before removing the 
dog. More suitable cramps for this purpose 
are those usually known as floor cramps or 
dogs, illustrations and particulars of which 



use. Two chief patterns are available, Fig. 
50 showing the Lancashire pattern. Tower 




46. — Wedge Cramp or Cleat. 



will be found in the section on floors. 
Cramps and similar appliances in less general 
use, but of importance in special cases, will 
be illustrated and their use explained, in each 
of the particular sections to which they 
belong. For cramping circular work there 
are many special devices, the flexible steel 
cramp (Fig. 49) being typical of them. The 
flexible cramp is shown in use, tightening up 




Fig. 49.— Circular Seat with Flexible Cramp. 

the four joints used in the construction of a 
circular seat or other piece of work. 

Pincers. — These are used for extracting 
and beheading nails, and in cases where a 
form of hand vice is wanted for momentarv 




Fig. 47. — Joiners' Dog. 

pincers have a round knob in place of the 
cone on the end of the handle. 

Paring and Shaving Tools. 

Chisels. — For full information as to the 
action of these tools readers are referred 
to ' ' Woodworking," the companion volume 
already alluded to. Firmer chisels shown by 




Fig. 48. — Dog made from Sheet Steel. 

Fig. 51 range from J in. to 1 J in. in width, 
and their use is to cut away superfluous wood 
in thin chips. The ordinary kind is strong 
and is made of solid steel, and is used with 
the aid of a mallet. A lighter form made 




Fig. 50. — Lancashire-Pattern Pincers. 

with bevelled edges (Fig. 52) is used, gene- 
rally without a mallet, for fine work and for 
cutting dovetailed mortises. For paring, 
a longer chisel is generally employed (Fig. 
53). Mortise chisels (Fig. 54) have various 
shapes, according to their particular uses, 
and require to be strongly made. 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 




Fig. 51. — Ordinary Firmer Chisel. 




Fig. 52. — Firmer Chisel with Bevelled Edges. 




Fig. 53. — Long Paring Chisel. 




Fig. 54. — Mortise Chisel. 




Fig. 55. — Firmer Gouge. 




» 




Fig. 56.— Draw Knife. 




Fig. 57. — Wooden Spokeshave. 




Fig. 58.— Iron Spokeshave. 



HAND TOOLS AND APPLIANCES. 



13 



Gouges. — These have the same action 
as that of a chisel, but instead of being 




Fig. 59.— Sectional View of Plane. 

flat their sections form arcs of circles 
(see Fig. 55). 

Draw Knife.— The draw knife (Fig. 56) 
is used for roughing stuff to 
shape preparatory to working 
with finer tools. 

Spokeshaves. — An ordinary 
spokeshave is merely a knife 
edge in a suitable holder (Fig. 
57) ; it may jump if the iron 
is loose, or if the back part 
of the iron touches the work 
before the cutting edge. 



Planes. — These are the tools chiefly used 
for smoothing work which has been sawn 
to approximate size. The simplest plane 
is a chisel firmly fixed into a wooden block. 
The construction of an ordinary plane is 
shown in the sectional view (Fig. 59), 
in which a shows the stock ; b, the wedge ; 
o, cutting iron ; d, back iron ; f, screw 
and nut for fastening the cutting and back 
irons together ; the mouth through which 
the shavings pass upwards is shown. The 
jack plane (Fig. 60) is the first plane applied 
to the sawn wood ; its parts are : the stock, 
17 in. long ; the toat, or handle ; the 
wedge ; the cutting iron, or cutter, about 
2J in. wide ; and the back iron. The 
trying or trueing plane (Fig. 61) is of similar 
construction, but is much longer, so as to 
produce truer surfaces. A still longer try- 
ing plane called the jointer is used for 
jointing boards in long lengths ; since the 
introduction of machinery it is seldom used. 
The smoothing plane (Fig. 62) smooths the 
work to form a finished surface ; for pine or 
other soft woods it is 9 in. long, and its iron 
is 2 J in. wide on the cutting face. Some 




Fig. 60. — Jack Plane. 




Fig. 61. — Trying Plane. 



Spokeshaves are best made with iron stocks 
and with screws to regulate the cutting 
iron (Fig/ 58). 



smoothing planes have iron fronts, as shown 
in the sectional view, Fig. 63 ; these can 
be adjusted for the finest shaving desired. 



14 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



A good form of iron smoothing plane 
is shown by Fig. 64 ; this is intended 
for superior work. The rebate plane 
(Fig. 65) is without a back iron, and 
its cutting iron extends the full width 




Fig. 62. — Smoothing Plane. 

of the tool, thus enabling the angles of 
rebates to be cleaned up. Other varieties 
of planes include the bead plane (Figs. 66 
to 68), used for working single and return 
beads and round rods. Hollows, rounds, 
etc. (Figs. 69 to 73), are used for working 



is made of steel entirely. The sole of 
the plane is about 10 in. long, 2 J in. wide, 




Fig. 64. — Iron Smoothing Plane. 

and yV m - thick. It is adjusted by means 
of a screw, and with it both concave and 
convex surfaces may be worked perfectly 





Fig. 65. — Rebate Plane. 

true and even. There are also employed 
ovolo lamb's - tongue planes for form- 
ing the mouldings on sash stiles and 



Fig. 63. — Iron Mouth-piece for 
Smoothing Plane. 



straight mouldings of all kinds, but machinery 
has of late years been increasingly used 
for such work. Small planes of varying 
shapes are used for forming mouldings on 
circular work. The compass plane, used 
for forming the face of concave ribs, etc., 
was formerly made of beech wood. The 
one generally used at the present time 




Fig. 66. 
Figs. 66, 67, and 68. — Bead Plane. 



Fig. 68. 



rails. The sash fillister (Fig. 74) is generally 
used for making rebates adjacent to the 
back side of the stuff, its fence working 
against the face side. When rebates have 
to be made next to the face side of the 
work a side fillister (Fig. 75) is most useful ; 



HAND TOOLS AND APPLIANCES. 



15 



its fence is adjustable to the face, allowing the bottoms of rectangular cavities ; the 
a rebate to be made of any width within chariot plane (almost obsolete), is used for 
the breadth of the plane iron. These planes, the small parts of work which the smooth- 






Fig. 69.— Hollow Plane. Fig. 70.— Round Plane. 



Fig. 75.— Side Fillister. 



and also the plough (Fig. 76), are principally ing plane cannot get at, and for planing 

used for grooving with the grain. They end grain and cross-grain work ; chamfer 

are not used so much as formerly, owing planes are used for taking off sharp edges 

to the introduction of machinery in large to form chamfers ; mitre shooting planes 



S\ 






Fig. 71.— Sash 
Plane. 



Fig. 72. — Sash Fig. 73. — Ogee 
Plane. Moulding Plane. 



shops, but they are still indispensable to 
most joiners. For the working of hard 
woods, to obtain perfect joints, gun-metal 
or iron planes known as the shoulder 
plane and bullnose plane are considered in- 
dispensable, as is also the steel smoothing 



Fig. 76.— Plough. 

are sufficiently described by their name ; 
and the plough or plough plane (Fig. 76), 
used for cutting or " ploughing " grooves. 
There are many other varieties of planes ; 
the names and uses of the more important 





Fig. 74.— Sash Fillister. 

plane which is used for cleaning up face 
work. The router, or " old woman's 
tooth " (Fig. 77), is used for working out 



Fig. 77. — Ordinary Router. 

will be treated upon in some of the follow- 
ing sections. Particulars of these may be 
found readily by reference to the index. 



16 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



Hand Saws. 

The saw cannot be classified with any 
other tool. It is essentially a tool for use 
across the fibre of the wood, and the separa- 
tion is a cutting, not a tearing action, as fully 
explained in the work already alluded to. 
The carpenter and joiner has some six or 



tremes it would be impossible to substitute 
the ripping and panel saws one for the 
other. The hand saw, however, which is a 
kind of compromise between extremes, is 
used indiscriminately for all purposes, 





Fig. 78.— Hand Saw. 




Fig. 79.— Tenon Saw. 

eight saws, comprising the rip, cross-cut, 
hand, panel, tenon, dovetail, bow or turn- 
ing, and keyhole. The hand-saw type in- 
cludes the hand saw proper, the ripping, 
half-ripping, and panel saws, all of similar 
outline, but differing in dimensions and in 
form and size of teeth. There is no sharp 
distinction between these tools, as they 
merge one into the other ; yet at the ex- 




Fig. 80. — Bow or Frame Saw. 

especially by the carpenter. Fig. 78 is a 
saw with nibbed back. Straight back and 
skew back or round back saws are made, and 
the teeth of the latter do not require to be 
set. The typical hand saw has a blade which 
is from 24 in. to 28 in. long. Its blade is 
as thin as possible, consistent with suffi- 
cient strength to prevent the saw buckling 
under thrust ; the taper of the blade is 



HAND TOOLS AND APPLIANCES. 



17 



calculated to withstand the thrusting stress 
without unduly increasing the mass of 
metal. The teeth are bent to right and 
left alternately — this being known as the 



its teeth, three to the inch, are sharpened 
square across the blade and set very much 
forward ; this saw is used for cutting along 
the grain, known as ripping. The tenon 
saw (Fig. 79) is used for cutting shoulders 
and in all cases where a clean cut is essen- 
tial ; it obtains this by means of its fine 
teeth. The dovetail saw is a small tenon 
saw, it being 6 in. or 8 in. long, whereas 
the ordinary tenon saw is 12 in. or 14 in. 



Fig. 81. — Compass Saw. 



Fig. 82.— Pad Saw. 



set — and their outline is angular. The 
teeth are so sharpened that their outer 
points enter the wood first, the fibre being 
divided by a gradually incisive kind of 
action. Six teeth to the inch are suitable 
for a hand saw used for cutting rough stuff, 
trimming joists, cutting rafters, etc. For 




■■■•n 



', I:. 



Fig. 83. 



Fig. 84. 



Figs. 83 and 84. — Improved Saw Vice. 

long. The bow saw, known also as the 
turning saw or frame saw (Fig. 80), cuts out 
curved work with or across the grain, the 
compass, turning, or lock saw (Fig. 81) being 
used for a similar purpose, and in cases where 
a large saw could not be employed. A key- 
hole or pad saw (Fig. 82) is used for small 
internal curved work. 

Appliances for Sharpening Saws. — For 
holding a hand saw during the process of 
sharpening, a saw vice (Figs. 83 and 84) 
is used, there being many designs to choose 
from. For sharpening English hand saws, 
the triangular file (Fig. 85) is corn- 




Fig. 85.— Triangular Saw File. 



joiners' work the panel saw, 2 in. or 3 in. 
shorter and much narrower, thinner, and 
lighter than the hand saw, is preferable. The 
rip saw has a blade about 28 in. long, and 



monly used ; its size varies with that of 
the saw for which it is required. Special 
shapes of files are necessary for sharpening 
American cross-cut and rip saws. Saw 



18 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



files are made in three degrees of fineness. 
For levelling down or topping saw teeth 
preparatory to sharpening, a flat file is 
necessary. The angles of saw teeth are set 
off with a protractor or hinged rule. For 
setting the teeth after they have been 
sharpened — that is, to bend each alternate 
tooth to one side — saw sets (Fig. 86) are 
used, or instead, patent contrivances are 
brought into requisition, these being so 
arranged that all the teeth can readily be 
set to one line. A useful form of plier saw 
set is shown by Fig. 87, and the method of 



hammer head. There is the Exeter or 
London pattern (Fig. 90), the Warrington 





Fig. 86. — Saw Set with Gauge. 

using it by Fig. 88. The amount of set 
can be regulated by the adjusting screw a. 
For hammer setting, however, a setting iron 
with bevelled edges is secured in the vice, 
the saw laid flat upon it, and the teeth 
struck one at a time with the pene of a small 
hammer (Fig. 89). This is the most satis- 
factory method of setting saw teeth when 
the operator has the necessary skill. 



91), and the adze-eye claw pattern 
92), the last named being less used 




Fig. 88. — Method of using Plier Saw Set. 

than the others in the workshop, but being 
very convenient for many kinds of handi- 




Fig. 89. — Hammer Setting Saw Teeth 



Tools of Percussion and Impulsion. 

Hammers. — The carpenter and joiner has 
the choice between two or three shapes of 



work. The hammer heads are of iron, with 
steel faces and penes. Two hammers, 
one weighing from 1 lb. to 1J lbs., and the 



HAND TOOLS AND APPLIANCES. 



19 



other from \ lb. to | lb., will be found use- 
ful, and it should be remembered that a 
heavy hammer applied lightly and skil- 
fully leaves fewer marks and does less 



Axes, Hatchets, and Adzes. — These are 
both percussion and cutting tools, as they 
combine the offices of the hammer and 
chisel. Axes have long handles, and may 
be slung as sledge-hammers, and they 
have heads more or less of the shape shown 
by Fig. 94, which illustrates the Kent pat- 





damage than a light hammer applied with Fig. 92.— Adze-eye Claw 

great force. Hammer. 

Mallets. — These are used for driving 

wood chisels, for knocking light framing . 

I together, and in cases where a hammer tern, many other patterns, however, being 

1 would probably damage both tools and in use. Hatchets have short handles, and 




Fig. 93.— English Mallet. 

material. An English beech mallet is shown 
by Fig. 93, but the American hickory or 
lignum vitae pattern is perhaps more con- 
venient, it having all the sharp edges cham- 
fered off and the handle being round and 
easier to grasp. In some American mallets 
the handle screws into the head. 





Fig. 94. — Kent Axe 
Head. 



Fig. 95. — American 
Axe Head. 



are used with one hand. The Kent pat- 
tern already illustrated is common, as is 



20 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



also the Canadian or American pattern 
shown by Fig. 95. The adze has a long, 
curved handle, and the operator stands 
with one foot upon the wood in the line 
of the fibre, and thus assists in steadying 
the work. The variety in the shape of 
the adze heads is very great, but it is suffi- 
cient here to show the Scotch pattern 
(Fig. 96). 

Screwdrivers. — These are tools of impul- 
sion, and at least two or three will be re- 
quired — long and short, and with wide and 
narrow blade. For general work, a tool 
of medium length should be obtained, al- 
though there are, on the one hand, enthu- 
siastic advocates of a short tool, and on 
the other hand of a long tool for each 
and every purpose. Any advantage gained 
by a short over a long tool, or the reverse, 
is one of advantage in special circumstances 
only, and not one of saved energy ; theoretic- 



America, and by their means the screw is 
driven home merely by pressure on the 
top of the handle. 

Boring Tools. 

Bradawls. — These have round stems and 
chisel edges (Fig. 99) ; thus the edge cuts 
the fibres of the wood and the wedge-like 
form of the tool pushes them aside. Its 
special use is for making comparatively 




Fig. 96. — Scotch Adze Head. 

ally, the length does not enter into con- 
sideration at all, except when, in starting 
to extract a difficult screw, the driver is 
tilted from the upright ; but this is at the 
risk of a broken tool edge and defaced 
screw -head. The worker then must decide 
for himself as to which sizes will best suit 
his purposes. London screwdrivers have a 
plain handle (Fig. 97) or oval handle ; 
cabinet screwdrivers are lighter tools, and 
there is, indeed, a great variety of patterns 
from which the worker can choose the 
tools that suit him. The gimlet-handle 
screwdriver has certain proved advantages ; 
and the brace screwdriver — a screwdriver 
bit used in an ordinary brace — is useful for 
driving good-sized screws easily and quickly. 
Short screwdrivers are used in screwing on 
drawer locks, there being a much heavier 
though just as short a tool used for screw- 
ing up plane irons. Automatic screw- 
drivers (Fig. 98) were introduced from 



Fig. 97.— Plain Handle Fig. 98.— Miller's Falls 
London Screwdriver. Automatic Screwdriver. 

small holes in soft wood, and the principal 
limitation of the tool is that there is no 
provision for the waste material. 

Gimlets. — These are made in many forms, 
the best known being the twist (Fig. 100) 
and the shell (Fig. 101), lesser known shapes 
being the twist-nose (Fig. 102) and the auger 
(Fig. 103). Gimlets will bore end grain as 
well as across the fibres, but there is a risk, 
in boring a narrow strip, of the pointed screw 
splitting the wood. 



HAND TOOLS AND APPLIANCES. 



21 



Brace and Bits. — There are various kinds 
of braces on the market, but the more 
generally used are the two following : A 
wooden brace with brass mountings is 
shown at Fig. 104. It is better to buy the 
bits fitted to this brace, as they are more 
truly centred than those bought separate 
are likely to be, and the centering of the bits 
is" essential to their proper action. With 
the American pattern brace (Fig. 105) this 
is not necessary, as by turning the socket 




Fig. 101.— Shell Gimlet. 



Fig. 102. — Twist-nose Gimlet. 



of the shape shown for the twist-nose gimlet 
by Fig. 102 ; it screws itself into the wood, 
and the chips tend to rise out of the hole, 
It is found to split narrow strips of wood, 
but it answers well for all other purposes. 
All the above bits can be obtained in a 
great variety of sizes ; but exact size is 
not guaranteed by the dealers, and the best 
plan is to bore a hole and measure, rather 



Fig. 103. — Auger Gimlet. 




the jaws are expanded or contracted so as 
to grip the shank of any size bit. This 
kind of brace may be had with a ratchet 
movement, which is very useful for boring 
or turning screws in corner positions where 
a complete revolution is not possible. Bits 
are known in very numerous forms. 
The pin bit is like a gouge sharpened 
both inside and outside ; when its 
corners are removed, it becomes a shell 
bit suited for boring at right angles 
to the fibre of the wood. The spoon bit' 
resembles the shell bit, but is pointed ; it 
is found to work easily, freely, and well. 
The nose bit is of similar shape, but its 
cutting edge is a part of the steel bent 
nearly to a right-angle and sharpened to 
form a kind of chisel ; this tool is efficient 
for boring the end way of the grain, but 
not across the grain. The twist-nose bit 
or half-twist, or Norwegian bit, is exactly 



Fig. 104. — Wooden 
Brace. 



Fig. 105.— Steel 
Brace. 



than measure the bit. Holes are enlarged 
by means of a hollow taper bit. Patent 
twist bits (Fig. 106) having a screw centre 
are known as screw bits, and these bore 
well in any wood and in any direction, 
relieving themselves of the chips and cutting 



Fig. 106. — Gedge's Twist Screw Bit. 

true to dimensions. Centre bits are per- 
haps the most commonly used bits (see Figs. 
107 and 108) ; they are useful for boring 
large holes, and are much superior to shell 
type bits in the important point of boring 
exactly where the hole is required. Ex- 
panding centre bits (Fig. 109) are known, 



22 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



and are a great convenience if of good 
quality. The Forstner auger bit (Fig. 110) 
is guided by its periphery instead of its 
centre, and consequently it will bore any 
arc of a circle, and can be guided in any 



edge of the spiral is a nicker which cuts the 
grain of the wood around the edge of the 
hollow. 






Fig. 107.— Centre Bit 
with Pin. 



Fig. 108.— Centre Bit 
with Screw. 



Fig. 112. — Handled Steel Scraper. 

Abrading and Scraping- Tools. 

Steel Scrapers. — The scraper is a thin and 
very hard steel plate, approximately 5 in. 
by 3 in., with or without a handle (see 
Fig. 112). Its action is really that of a 
cutting tool. It is used on a surface pre- 




Fig. 110. — Forstner Auger Bit. 




Fig. 111. — Auger. 

direction regardless of grain or knots, leav- 
ing a true, polished, cylindrical hollow. 

Augers. — The auger (Fig. Ill) bores well 
in the direction of the grain of the wood, and 
is complete in itself. It is a steel rod, 
having a round eye at one end, through 
which a round wooden handle passes. At 
the other end is a spiral twist terminating in 
a conical screw with a sharp point. The 



Fig. 113. — Action of Steel Scraper. 

viously made as smooth and level as the 
plane can make it. The scraper is so 
sharpened that a burr or feather is formed 
along its edges (see the diagram, Fig. 113). 
The thickness of the scraper blade, which 
is about T V in., is shown exaggerated. 
The edge is filed straight and flat, it is 
then rubbed along the oilstone to remove 
file marks, and finally the edge is turned 
and sharpened by two heavy rubs with 
a round steel burnisher held at an angle of 
about 30° with the plate. 

Glasspaper. — This is the chief abrading 
material used in woodworking, and consists 



HAND TOOLS AND APPLIANCES. 



23 



of strong paper coated with powdered glass 
secured to the paper with glue. The dif- 




Fig. 114. — Glasspaper Rubber. 

ferent grades of glasspaper are numbered 
from 3 to 0, and even finer. For properly 



Washita, and Arkansas. The Charnley 
Forest is of a greenish-slate colour, and 
sometimes has small red or brown spots — 
the lighter the colour the better ; it may 
take a little more rubbing than other stones 
to get an edge on the tool, but that edge 
will be keen and fine. Some Turkey oil- 
stones are of a dark slate colour when oiled,, 
with white veining and sometimes white 
spots ; they give a keen edge, but wear un- 
evenly, and also are very brittle ; they are 




Fig. 115. — Half-round Wood Rasp. 




Fig. 116.— Half-round Wood File. 



using glasspaper a rubber (Fig. 114) is re- 
quired, this being a shaped wooden block 
faced with cork. In use the glasspaper is 
folded round it. Glasspaper has entirely 
replaced the old-fashioned sandpaper, which 
was a similar material, except that fine, 
sharp sand was used instead of powdered 
glass. 

Rasps and Files. — Woodworkers' rasps 
are generally half-round, though sometimes 
flat. The wood rasp (Fig. 115) is coarser 
than the cabinet rasp. The ordinary half- 
round wood file (bastard cut) is shown at 
Fig. 116. Both range from 4 in. to 14 in. 
in length. The usual files used for keeping 
saws in order chiefly are known as triangu- 
lar taper (Fig. 85), and have already been 
alluded to. 

Grindstones. — The grindstone (Fig. 117), 
many varieties of which are obtainable, is 
an appliance for removing a superfluous 
thickness of metal, not for producing a good 
edge. It should be of a light grey colour, 
even throughout. 

Oilstones. — On an oilstone the joiner 
sharpens his tools, which have been pre- 
viously ground to shape on the grindstone. 
The oilstones in most general use are four 
in number — the Charnley Forest, Turkey, 



notoriously slow -cutting, and are expensive. 
The cheapest oilstone at first cost is the Nova 




Fig. 117. — Treadle Grindstone on Iron Stand 



24 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



Scotia, or Canada stone, which is brownish 
yellow in colour when new, changing to a 
yellowish grey by use, and wearing away 
rather quickly. The Washita stone cuts 
more quickly than a Turkey stone, and 
also more regularly. Some kinds are of a 
whitish grey or light buff colour when oiled. 
The Arkansas stone is compact and white, 
and finer in grain than the Washita. It 
wears well and cuts slowly, producing fine 
edges. Oilstones generally are about 8 in. 
long, 2 in. wide, and 1 in. thick, a very 
convenient width being 1J in. A small oil- 
stone of 4 in. by 1\ in. is useful for sharpen- 
ing spokeshaves, and pieces or slips of 




Fig. 118. — Oilstone in Plain Case. 

stone of various sizes and shapes are re- 
quired for gouges, router cutters, etc. It 
is usual to keep an oilstone in a box or case 
(Fig. 118). Neat's-foot oil or sperm oil 
commonly is considered best for oilstone 
use ; lard oil containing sufficient paraffin 
to prevent it going thick in cold weather 
is also recommended. Many other oils are 
used for the purpose, but all tend to harden 
the surface of the stone much more quickly 
than neat's-foot or sperm. The oil can 
be kept in a bench oil-can, which will come 
in generally useful. 

Emery Oilstones and Oilstone Substitutes, 
— Emery oilstones are an American intro- 
duction, and are made of Turkish emery, 
one face being of fine and the other of 
medium coarse material. They have the 
advantage over any natural oilstone of being 
uniform in texture, and of not being brittle. 
Oilstone substitutes are strips of zinc upon 



which is sprinkled a little flour emery and 
oil, this working more quickly than a 
proper stone, but not giving so finished an 
edge. 

Nails, Screws, and Glue. 

Nails. — Nails may be of iron, steel, etc., 
wrought, cast, cut, or made of wire. For- 
merly nails were said to be 6-lb., 8-lb., etc., 
according as 1,000 of the variety weighed 
that amount — hence now such meaningless 
terms as sixpenny, eightpenny, and ten- 
penny nails, in which " penny " is a corrup- 
tion of " pound." Of the nails commonly 
used in carpentry and joinery, the cut clasp 
nail, machine-made from sheet " iron 
(probably steel), may be used for almost any 
purpose, and is not liable to split the work. 
Rose-head nails have a shank parallel in 
width, but tapered to a chisel point in 
thickness ; these are made of tough 
wrought iron, and are used chiefly for 
field-gates and fencing. Wrought clasp 
nails resemble the cut clasp, but have 
sharper points, and are used chiefly in 
common ledged doors, as they will readily 
clinch. Oval steel nails are nicely shaped, 
very tough, and are less likely to split the 
material than any other kind of nail ; 
slight shallow grooves in the shank increase 
the holding power. Brads are known in 
more than one variety. The cut-steel large 
brad is used in flooring, and does not make 
such a large hole as a cut nail. The cut- 
steel small brad is used for general pur- 
poses. French nails are of round wire, 
pointed, and have round, flat heads ; they 
are strong, but their unsightly heads cause 
their use to be confined to rough work. 



Fig. 119. — Square Nail Set or Punch. 



for 



The double-pointed nail is intended 
dowelling and other purposes. 

Nail Sets or Punches. — For punching nail 
heads below the surface of the work a steel 
set (Fig. 119) of square or round section is 
used. 

Screws. — The screw nail commonly used 
for uniting woodwork is known as the wood 






HAND TOOLS AND APPLIANCES. 



25 



screw, and, although it has been in use a 
long time, the present pointed screw was 
not made prior to the year 1841. The 
screw replaces nails in all fixing where the 
hammer cannot conveniently be used or 
where jarring must be avoided. The screw 




Fig. 120.— Flat Head Wood Screw. 




Fig. 121. — Round Head Wood Screw. 




Fig. 122. — Cup Wood Screw. 

possesses ten times the compression and 
attractive strength of ordinary nails, and, 
besides, is convenient for use in putting 
work together which is soon to be taken 
down. Screws are made in almost endless 
variety, but the best known three are : 
flat-head screw (Fig. 120), made of iron, 
steel, or brass ; round-head screw (Fig. 121), 
which is generally japanned and used for 
fixing bolts, locks, etc. ; cup screw (Fig. 122), 
the head of which fits into a cup (as illus- 
trated) which is let into the work flush 
with the surface. 

Glue, Glue-pots, and Glue-brushes. — Glue, 
size, and gelatine are varieties of the same 
substance, differing only in the quantity 
of moisture and of impurities which they 
contain. Gelatine-yielding substances em- 
ployed in glue manufacture include skins 
of all animals, tendons, intestines, bladders, 
bones, hoofs, and horns. Glue is manu- 
factured by boiling the animal matter and 
straining the product into coolers, where it 
thickens into a jelly, which is cut into sheets 
and dried in the open air on frames of wire 
netting. Glue should be of a bright brown 
or amber colour, free from specks or blotches, 

2 



nearly transparent, and with but little taste 
or smell. It should be hard and moderately 
brittle, not readily affected by moisture 
in the atmosphere, and should break sharply, 
but if it shivers as easily as a piece of glass 
it is much too brittle, though at the same 
time it must not be tough and leathery. 
Roughly speaking, a glue which will ab- 
sorb more water than another is prefer- 
able. Good glue does not give off an un- 
pleasant smell after being prepared a few 
days. In the workshop, different kinds of 
glue-pots are used, according to the quan- 
tity required. The usual glue-pot has an 
outer and an inner vessel and is shown in 
section at Fig. 123. When glue is used 
in large quantities, and steam pipes are 
laid on for heating purposes, the glue is 
kept hot on a water bath heated by steam 
pipes. The joiner prepares glue by break- 
ing it into small pieces, soaking these 




Fig. 123. — Section through a Glue-pot. 

in clean, cold water for several hours, and 
then boiling the res ul ting lumps of jelly — 
the superfluous water having been poured 
off — in a double-vessel glue-pot for an 
hour or two, or until the glue runs easily 
from the brush without breaking into drops. 
A glue-brush can be bought for a few 
pence, and its bristles should be compara- 
tively short. A cane brush is preferred 
by many workers, this being made with 
a piece of rattan cane about 8 in. long, the 
flinty skin for an inch or so at one end 
being cut away, the end soaked in boiling 
water for a minute or two, and then ham- 
mered till the fibres are loosened ; this brush 
lasts as long as there is any cane left from 
which to hammer out a fresh end. 

Other Tools and Appliances. — Many other 
tools and appliances not in such general 
use will be illustrated and described in con- 
nection with the matter treated in some 
of the other sections (see index). 



TIMBER. 



Growth of Timber Trees. 

Structure of Tree Trunk. — Trees which 
produce timber are known botanically as 
exogens, or outward growers, because the 
new wood is added underneath the bark 
outside that already formed. The whole 
section (Fig. 124) consists of (a) pith in the 
centre, which dries up and disappears as 
the tree matures ; (b) woody fibre or long 




Fig. 124.— Cross Section of Stem of 
Timber Tree. 

tapering bundles of vascular tissue forming 
the duramen or heartwood, arranged in 
rings, each of which is considered to repre- 
sent a year's growth, and interspersed with 

(c) medullary rays or transverse septa con- 
sisting of flat, hard plates of cellular tissue 
known to carpenters as " silver-grain," or 
" felt," or " flower," and showing most 
strongly in oak and beech : the heartwood 
is comparatively dry and hard, from the 
compression produced by the newer layers ; 

(d) alburnum, or sapwood, which is the im- 
mature woody fibre recently deposited. In 
coniferous trees the sapwood is only dis- 
tinguishable by a slight greenish tinge when 
dry, but when wet it holds the moisture 
much longer than the heartwood, and can 
often be detected in that way ; (e) the bark, 
which is a protecting coat on the outside 



of the tender sapwood ; it receives addi- 
tions on the inside during the autumn, which 
cause it to crack and become very irregular 
in old trees. The mode of growth is as 
follows : In the spring moisture from the 
earth is absorbed by the roots, and rises 
through the stem as sap to form the leaves. 
The leaves give off moisture and absorb 
carbon (in the form of carbonic acid gas), 
which thickens the sap. In the autumn 
the sap descends inside the bark and adds 
a new layer of wood to the tree. The 
actual growth is less regular than appears 
in Fig. 124, and more resembles Fig. 125. 

Formation of Wood. — Fig. 125 further 
illustrates the manner in which the stem 
of a timber tree grows by the deposit of 
successive layers of wood on the outside 
under the bark, while at the same time the 
bark becomes thicker by the deposit of 
layers on its under side. Upon examining 
the cross section of an oak log as Fig. 125, 
it is found that the wood is made up of 
several concentric layers or rings, each 
ring consisting in general of two parts, the 
outer part being usually darker in colour, 
denser, and more solid than the inner part, 
the difference between the parts varying in 
different kinds of trees. These layers are 
called annual rings, because one of them is, 
as a rule, deposited every year in a manner 
which will be presently explained. In the 
centre of the first layer is a column of pith, 
from which planes, seen in section as thin 
lines (in many woods not discernible), 
radiate towards the bark, and in some cases 
similar lines from the bark converge towards 
the centre, but do not reach the pith (see 
Figs. 125 and 126). These radiating lines 
are known as medullary rays or transverse 
septa. When they are of large size and 
strongly marked, as in some kinds of oak. 



2G 



TIMBEK. 



27 



they present the beautiful figured appear- 
ance called silver-grain or felt, as illustrated 
by the longitudinal section (Fig. 126). To 
produce this effect, the timber must be 
sawn in the radial planes of the medullary 
rays, or slightly oblique to them. As already 
mentioned, the wood is com- 
posed of bundles of cellular 
tubes, which serve to convey 



medullary rays, the sapwood being on the 
outside and the remainder heartwood. 
f, Fig. 126, shows the longitudinal section 




the required nourishment from the earth 
to the leaves. Fig. 125 shows the cross 
section with the annual rings and the 



Fig. 126.— Log with Central Board cut 
so as to show the Figure formed by 
the Medullary Rays. The Effect of 
Shrinkage after cutting the Log into 
Boards or Quarters. 



through the centre of the tree where the 
flower or silver-grain (that is, the medullary 
rays in elevation) is marked, together with 
the edges of the annual rings. A, Fig. 125, 
shows a longitudinal section nearer to the 
bark, where the graining is formed by the 



28 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



section of the annual rings, owing to the 
straight cut through the bent tree. The 
medullary rays are seen edgeways as fine 
lines in this section, whilst the annual layers 
form beautiful wavy and hearty grain. A 
plank cut so as to contain part of the centre 
pith of the tree as shown at f, in Fig. 126, 
would be least affected in breadth by 
shrinking. 

Difference Between Exogenous and Endo- 
genous Timber. — Exogens and endogens are 
very different in internal structure and in 
outward appearance. The exogens, as has 
been explained, increase in size by the addi- 
tion of new material at the outside of the 
stem — just under the bark. They continue 
to increase in diameter as well as in height 
throughout their whole lifetime. This 
growth may be carried on continuously, 
as in the cactuses, or intermittently, by 
abrupt periodical advances and cessations, 
as in the forest trees. The hardest portion 
of the stem is towards the centre. The 
fibro -vascular bundles are " open " — that 
is, capable of further development. There 
is a distinct and separable bark, and usually 
a number of branches. The trunk and 
branches are frequently crooked. The leaves 
are articulated, and drop off neat or clean 
from the tree. The veins in the leaves 
ramify, forming an irregular network. The 
flowers, when present, have, as a rule, four 
or five sepals and petals, etc., or multiples 
of these. The seeds (except in conifers) 
split in two. The oak, apple, laburnum, 
and the wallflower are examples of exogens. 
Some exogens live to be more than a 
thousand years old. Endogens mainly in- 
crease in size by end growth. There is 
lateral distension for a time, but this soon 
ceases, and then the tree remains of nearly 
uniform diameter throughout its life. There 
are no annual rings — the growth being 
mostly continuous. The hardest portion of 
the stem is at the outside, where a false 
rind made up of broken leaf -ends, etc., is 
formed, but no bark. The fibro -vascular 
bundles become " limited," or " closed," 
after a certain period, after which they serve 
only to strengthen the stem. The trunk 
is straight, or nearly so, and seldom has any 
branches. If it does have any branches, 
as in bamboo, then these are straight too. 



At the top end, where the growing is taking 
place, the new leaves arise inside the old 
ones, and press them outwards and down- 
wards as they grow. The old leaves even- 
tually die, and hang like a ragged sheath 
around the stem. The leaves are parallel- 
veined. The flowers are mostly on the 
plan of three. The seed is entire : hence 
Monocotyledons. Few endogens live to be 
300 years old. Nearly all the principal 
kinds belong to tropical or sub-tropical 
climates — examples are the palms, bamboos, 
grasses, and lilies. There are no endogenous 
trees indigenous to England, and it is 
believed that the only British endogenous 
shrub is the butcher's broom — Ruscus 
aculeatum. 

Function of Sap. — The action of the sap 
may now be described in fuller detail. In 
the spring the roots absorb from the soil 
moisture, which, converted into sap, ascends 
through the cellular tubes to form the 
leaves. At the upper surface of the leaves 
the sap gives off moisture, absorbs carbon 
from the air, and becomes denser ; after 
the leaves are full-grown, vegetation is sus- 
pended until the autumn, when the sap in 
its altered state descends, by the under 
side of the leaves, chiefly between the wood 
and the bark, where it deposits a layer of 
new wood (the annual ring for that year), 
a portion at the same time being absorbed 
by the bark. During this time the leaves 
drop off, the flow of sap then almost stops, 
and vegetation is at a standstill for the 
winter. With the next spring the operation 
recommences, so that after a year a distinct 
layer of wood is added to the tree. The 
above description refers to temperate cli- 
mates, in which the circulation of sap stops 
during the winter ; in tropical climates 
it stops during the dry season. Thus, as 
a rule, the age of the tree can be ascer- 
tained from the number of annual rings ; 
but this is not always the case. Some- 
times a recurrence of exceptionally warm or 
moist weather will produce a second ring 
in the same year. 

Heartwood and Sapwood. — A young tree 
is almost all sapwood, but as it matures 
this is gradually changed into heartwood 
more rapidly than sapwood is added, and as 
the tree increases in age, the inner layers are 



TIMBER. 



29 



filled up and hardened, becoming duramen or 
heartwood, the remainder being alburnum 
or sapwood. The sapwood is softer and 
lighter in colour than the heartwood, and 
can generally be easily distinguished from 
it. In addition to the strengthening of the 
wood caused by the drying up of the sap, 
and consequent hardening of the rings, there 
is another means by which it is strengthened 
— that is, by the compressive action of the 
bark. Each layer, as it solidifies, expands, 
exerting a force on the bark, which eventu- 
ally yields, but in the meantime offers a 
slight resistance, compressing the tree 
throughout its bulk. The sapwood is 
generally distinctly bounded by one of the 



this makes it drier, lighter, and more resilient 
or springy. It is less liable to twist, warp, 
or split. The advantages of using seasoned 
timber are that it works more easily under 
the saw and plane, and retains its size and 
shape after it leaves the hands of the car- 
penter or joiner. Unseasoned stuff warps 
and shrinks, and, besides being unsightly, is 
liable to cause failures in structures of which 
it may form a part ; it is also very liable to 
decay from putrefaction of its sap. 

Natural Processes of Seasoning Timber. — 
Timber produced from a newly felled tree 
is full of moisture, and this must be ex- 
tracted by drying or seasoning. Timber 
cut down in the autumn, after the sap has 




Fig. 127. — Hardwood Stacked for Seasoning. 



annual rings, and can thus be sometimes 
distinguished from stains of a similar colour, 
which are caused by dirty water soaking 
into the timber while it is lying in the ponds. 
These stains do not generally stop abruptly 
upon a ring, but penetrate to different 
depths, colouring portions of the various 
rings. The heartwood is stronger and more 
lasting than the sapwood, and should 
alone be used in good work. The annual 
rings are generally thicker on the side of 
the tree that has had most sun and air, and 
the heart is, therefore, seldom in the centre. 

Seasoning Timber. 

Advantages of Seasoned Timber. — Seasoned 
timber differs from unseasoned principally 
in having the sap and moisture removed ; 



formed the new layers of wood, is best 
seasoned by cutting it into planks and stack- 
ing them horizontally in open order under 
cover, exposed to a free current of air, and 
protected from ground moisture. Hard 
woods are generally stacked with thin strips 
between them, placed transversely every 
2 ft. or so (Fig. 127), and soft woods by 
laying them on edge with spaces between, 
the direction being crossed in adjacent 
courses. The time occupied is, say, two years. 
Balk timber is best seasoned by putting it 
under water in a running stream for a few 
weeks, then stacking it loosely with some 
protection from sun and rain. These are 
termed natural processes. For protecting 
the stacked timber from the action of the 
sun and high winds, a shed with open ends, 



30 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



or with louvred sides — that is, with sides 
after the fashion of Venetian blinds — proves 
satisfactory. In stacking timber horizon- 
tally, it should be laid perfectly flat and level 
in breadth and straight in length. The usual 
plan is to lay " sleepers " or cross -bearers 
on the ground, and then stack upon these. 
The ground on which the timber is to be 
seasoned should be properly drained so as to 
carry off driving rain. . It should also be 
protected from vegetable growth ; therefore 



by 1 in. between each layer, about 2 ft. 
or 4 ft. apart (Fig. 127), or arranged in 
some similar manner, the^object to be kept 
in view being to allow free circulation of air 
round nearly the whole of each piece, gradu- 
ally carrying off a greater part of the sap 
and moisture from the timber. To prevent 
planks and boards splitting from the ends 
up the centre, they are clamped by nailing 
strips of wood to the ends as indicated at a 
(Fig. 127). Timber seasoned as above is said 




Fig. 128. — Single " Sturtevant " Apartment Drying Kiln, Section. 



it is a good plan to have the ground covered 
with asphalted paving, or with a layer of 
smith's or furnace ashes to prevent veget- 
able growth contaminating the stacked 
timber and bringing about wet rot, or in 
some cases from becoming the source of the 
development of dry rot after the timber has 
been inserted in a building. The lowest 
layer of timber should rest upon bearers 
which should be arranged all in one plane 
— that is, out of winding, otherwise the 
timber stacked upon them would become 
permanently twisted. This is very impor- 
tant. The timber should be stacked in 
layers, with a space between each piece in 
the same row, and strips of wood about J in. 



to retain properties that render it stronger, 
heavier, more elastic and flexible, and much 
more durable than timber seasoned by 
artificial processes. 

Artificially Seasoning Timber. — There are 
various artificial processes of seasoning in 
use which expedite the work and shorten 
the time necessary between felling and 
using, but the strength and toughness of 
the timber are'reduced. The methods are 
— desiccating, or using hot-air chambers, 
smoking, steaming, and boiling. To reduce 
the risk of splitting the ends in the drying 
process, they are clamped — that is, thin 
pieces are nailed over the end grain so that 
the ends may dry uniformly with the other 



TIMBER. 



31 



parts. McNeile's process is said to be very 
good : the wood to be seasoned is exposed 
to a moderate heat in a moist atmosphere 
charged with the products of combustion, 
say C0 2 , which is supposed to convert the 
sap to woody fibre and drive out the mois- 
ture. Smoke-drying over an open wood 



Modern Method of Artificially 
Seasoning Timber. 

Nature seasoning takes so long that it 
keeps idle a vast amount of capital. By 
artificial means timber can be dried in fewer 
days than it takes months by the natural 




Fig. 129. — Four-chamber " Sturtevant " Drying Kiln, Section. 



fire drives out the sap and moisture and 
renders the wood more durable and less 
liable to attack by worms. Burying logs in 
sand is a method of artificial seasoning. 
The disadvantage of artificial seasoning is 
that the method of drying is too rapid, 
and seems to take away the stability of the 
material, leaving it less firm, more brittle, 
and duller in appearance. 



process, consequently improvements in the 
methods of seasoning are constantly being 
sought for. A large quantity of deals, 
battens, planks, etc., receive a first season- 
ing before being placed on the market. 
The most effective artificial methods of 
seasoning are probably of American origin. 
The following two systems are largely in 
use. 



32 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



The "Sturtevant" System of Drying 
Timber. 

Rapid and efficient drying is effected 
by subjecting the timber to a continual 
passage of warm dry air in a kiln con- 
structed of wood or brick into which hot 
air is introduced by a fan. Fig. 128 shows 
a sectional view. The 
air is first heated by 
a Sturtevant heater 
e to the desired 
temperature by either 
ive or exhaust 



within the kiln, and thus prevents the 
exterior of the stack drying too quickly 
and becoming simply skin dried. Per- 
fectly green coniferous timber one inch 
thick can be dried within six days, other 
thicknesses in proportion. It is claimed 
that by this process the outside of the wood 
is kept open, which allows the,, moisture 
from the heart to escape :, without 
splitting, warping, or discolouring 
taking place. Pig. 129 is a sectional 
view of a large kiln having four 
compartments. Timber is erected in 
stacks, on trucks running on rails, 




Fig. 130. — Erith's Patent Automatic Drying Kiln, General View. 



steam, which ensures that the tempera- 
ture never exceeds 212° F. Then, by 
means of the fan f, it is forced through the 
outlets of the supply duct b into the kiln, 
circulating completely round the timber. 
Owing to the high temperature of the air 
it rapidly absorbs moisture and is then 
passed into the atmosphere, or it may be 
returned to the apparatus to be reheated 
and the absorbing process repeated. The 
return ducts a and c serve a double purpose 
by utilising the remaining air which comes 
gradually laden with moisture ; the pro- 
cess of reheating serves, by regulation, 
to maintain any desired degree of humidity 



and is thus easily conveyed in and out 
of the kiln. 

Erith's Patent Automatic Timber 
Drier. 

These kilns may be of wood or brick. 
For carrying out this system of drying 
timber one form of kiln is shown at Fig. 
130. The timber is conveyed into the 
kiln by being stacked upon trucks running 
on rails, and as the timber is dried, it is 
passed out at the opposite end. A canvas 
roller door is provided at each end which 
works on the roller-blind principle, but fitting 
almost air-tight. This system dries wood 



TIMBER. 



33 



by the circulation of warm but very moist air. 
Its operation is automatic, no machinery 
or power being required. The apparatus 
consists of specially arranged steam radiator 
coils, in which exhaust or live steam may 
be used ; they are placed beneath the rails 
near the discharging end of the building. 
Air flows under the radiator coils, and rises, 
at the same time travelling through the 
stacks of wood, thus gradually drawing 



Artificially Seasoning Timber Small 
5tuff. 

A method sometimes adopted for seasoning 
small pieces of timber, especially for tool 
making, and other purposes, isp ossible wher- 
ever a Supply of steam — from the boiler or 
exhaust of a steam engine — is available. 
The pieces of wood are stacked in a 
steam chest (see Fig. 131) or a barrel (Fig. 
132) and allowed to become thoroughly 




Fig. 131. — Steam Chest for Small Pieces of Timber. 



moisture from it. As the air becomes 
more laden with moisture it sinks between 
the rails and flows towards the loading end, 
where it is allowed to escape. This circu- 
lation may be regulated by a few simple 
dampers. The timber is dried from the 
centre outwards, the surfaces finishing last ; 
therefore case-hardening, splitting, warp- 
ing and other injuries are prevented. By 
this system it is claimed that timber 
which would require a year to dry in the 
open can be dried in a week ; this, of 
course, is a great advantage. 

2* 



saturated with steam; This will take from 
two to twelve hours, according to the kind 
and thickness of the wood. No pressure 
is required, but the door of the chest or 
top of the barrel should be closed with a 
lid ; the fitting is not close, allowing the 
steam which has circulated round the wood 
to escape. For this reason the apparatus 
is kept outside a building. The material 
being treated is kept from the bottom proper 
to allow the steam to become evenly distri- 
buted. The use of this method is very 
limited, because by it the natural colours 



i 



:^4 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 






of many woods are more or less changed, 
especially in the case of beech, the colour 
of which is changed from a dull white to 
the familiar reddish tint. After it is taken 
out the wood is piled under cover in the 
ordinary manner and allowed to dry ; 
this, in small thin material, usually 
takes three weeks or a month. The 
drying time might be considerably short- 
ened by utilising the space above the 
boiler as a drying loft. A temperature of 
120° F. to 180° F. (obtainable above most 



Fig. 132. — Barrel for Seasoning Small Timber. 

boilers) would get the drying over in a 
day or two, but the material should not 
be transferred to such a position direct 
from the steam-box ; let it have a few days' 
ordinary drying first. The apparatus illus- 
trated by Fig. 132 is also suitable for steam- 
bending purposes. 

Shrinkage During Seasoning. — During sea- 
soning a large proportion of the moisture 
evaporates, causing the fibres to shrink and 
the timber to become less in bulk and weight. 
Timber is considered fit for carpenters' 
work when it has lost one-fifth of its weight, 
and for joiners' work when it has lost one- 
third. It also becomes lighter in colour 
and more easily worked. The shrinkage is 
scarcely perceptible in the length, but is 
very considerable in the width, measuring 
circumferentially on the annual rings (see 
e and g, Fig. 126). Radially, or in the 



direction of the medullary rays, the shrink- 
age is only slight, as shown by the board 
P, Fig. 126. If the log is whole, the 
shrinkage causes shakes and wind -cracks ; 
if cut up into planks or quartering, the 
shrinkage is determined by the position of 
the annual rings, and, with care, shakes are 
not caused. The wood curls or bends 
breadthwise, with the edges turning on the 
side which is farthest away from the heart. 
This is illustrated at e, g, and h, Fig. 126. 
This circumstance must always be considered 
in fixing timber in position. 

Preserving Timber. 

Bethell 's Process. — There are a number of 
preservative processes other than season- 
ing which are of value in increasing the 
durability of timber. Bethell's process, 
also known as creosoting, consists in placing 
pieces of seasoned timber in closed wrought- 
iron cylinders, from which, and also from 
the pores of the wood, the air is extracted. 
Oil-of-tar, known as creosote, is then forced 
into the cylinders and pores of the wood, 
at a temperature of about 120°, and under 
a pressure of 60 lb. to 170 lb. per square 
inch, according to the porosity of the wood 
and the purpose for which it is required. 
The quantity forced into the wood varies 
from 3 lb. per cubic foot in some hard woods 
to 12 lb. in soft woods. 

Bouchere's Process. — This consists in 
placing a reservoir, containing 100 parts in 
weight of water to 1 part of sulphate of 
copper, in a position about 40 ft. or 50 ft. 
above the timber, and connecting it by a 
flexible tube to a cap which is fixed tight 
to one end of the piece of timber under 
treatment. The pressure is sufficient for 
the fluid to force out the sap at the other 
end and take its place in the pores of the 
timber. 

Burnett's System. — By this system a fluid 
is prepared in the proportion of 1 lb. of 
chloride of zinc to 4 gal. of water. The 
timber is sometimes laid in a bath of this 
fluid until it has absorbed sufficient ; or 
the solution is forced under pressure into 
the timber. The value of the above pro- 
cesses lies in the preservation of the timber 
from dry and wet rot, and, in the case of the 
latter two systems, from most insects, so 



TIMBER. 



35 



long as the salts remain in the timber ; but 
by some authorities the salts are said to be 
gradually removed by the action of water, 
and thus in time the timber becomes a prey 
to insects and decay. When, however, 
timber is treated thoroughly by Bethell's 
process, its durability is greatly increased, 
and it is rendered proof against the attacks 
of every insect, including the white ant. 




Fig. 133. Fig. 134. 

Fig. 133. — Planks Warped according to position 

in Tree. Fig. 134. — Shrinkage of Quartering in 

Seasoning. 




Fig. 135. Fig. 136. 

Fig. 135.— Old Method of Converting Logs into 

Deals. Fig. 136.— Modern Method of Converting 

Logs into Deals. 

Converted Timber. 

A log is the trunk of a tree after the 
branches are lopped off. A balk is a log 
which has been squared by means either 
of sawing or adzing ; the latter would be 
known as a hewn balk. Planks are pieces of 
sawn timber from 2 in. to 6 in. thick, 11 in. 
to 18 in. wide, and from 8 ft. and upward in 
length. Deals are from 2 in. to 4 in. thick 
and 9 in. wide. Battens are from 4| in. 
to 7 in. wide, and from 2 in. to 4 in. thick. 
Boards are pieces of sawn timber of any 
length and breadth, but not exceeding 2 in. 
in thickness. Scantlings are pieces of timber 
which have been sawn to 4 in. by 4 in., 4 in. 
by 3 in., 4 in. by 2 in., 3 in. by 3 in., 3 in. 
by 2 in., etc. The smallest pieces are fre- 
quently called quarterings. 



Converting Timber. 

In converting timber into planks or 
boards the shrinkage and warping to be 
expected in use depend upon what part of 
the tree the piece is cut from. Practically, 
the stuff will only shrink along the curved 
lines of the annual rings, and not from the 
outside towards, the centre ; so that, a tree 
being cut into planks, the alteration produced 
by seasoning is shown in Figs. 126 and 133: 
A piece of quartering would, in the same 
way, if originally die-square, become obtuse 
angled on two opposite edges, and acute 




v^ 



Fig. 137. — Converting Pitchpine Logs into Boards 
to show the Grain. 



angled on the other two, as in Fig. 134: In 
the conversion of fir, the old system is 
shown at Fig. 135, which is objection- 
able on account of the centre deal contain- 
ing the pith enclosed, and being therefore 
more subject to dry rot. Fig. 136 shows 
the modern method of conversion, where 
the 9x3 deals go to the English market, 
and the 9 x 1J to the French market. Of 
the remainder in each case, some is cut up 
into battens and fillets for slating and tiling, 
and similar purposes, and the rest used as 
fuel. The method of converting a pitch- 
pine log so as to show the best possible grain 
is indicated by Fig. 137 (see also p. 48). Id 
converting oak, the method will depend 
upon the purpose for which it is required. 
For thin stuff, where the silver grain or 
" flower " is desired to appear, the method 



36 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



shown at a (Fig. 138) is best, and that at b 
second best, the object being to get the 
greatest number of pieces with the face 
nearly parallel to the medullary rays. The 
method shown at c makes less waste, but 
does not show up the grain so well ; while 



and seasoning. It will be noticed that Fig. 
140 undergoes the least change. At Fig. 143 
two planks are represented occupying 
adjacent positions in the same log. Fig. 
144 indicates the change in shape of each 
after conversion and seasoning. The centre 






Fig. 138. — Converting Oak into 
Boards. 



Fig. 139. — Square Scantlings. 



Fig. 140. Fig. 141. 

Fig. 140. — Scantling from Centre. 
Fig. 141.— Scantling from Side. 



Fig. 142. — Scantling from Edge. 





Fig. 143.— Planks. 



Fig. 144. — Alteration of Form 
in Planks. 




Fig. 145. — Warping of Planks. 






Fig. 148. — Well Jointed Planks. 



Fig. 147. — Oak Plank showing 
Fig. 146. — Plank Cut to show Figure. 

Figure. 

d is the most economical when larger scant- 
lings are required. 

How the Cutting of Timber Affects 

its Use. 
The method of cutting timber has a big 
effect upon its use. Fig. 139 shows square 
scantlings occupying three different positions 
in the same log ; Figs. 140 to 142 show the 
alteration of form in each piece after sawing 




Fig. 149.— Badly Jointed Planks. 

plank and those to the left in Fig. 145 
indicate how boards cut from the log tend 
to shrink and warp if unrestrained. If the 
boards are cut as shown at K, there would 
be the least alteration in form. Timber 
should be cut as represented at Fig. 146 in 
order to show the figure formed by the 
annual rings. When it is required to obtain 
oak panels, etc., showing the beautiful 
markings of the medullary rays, the timber 



TIMBER. 



37 



should be cut as shown at Fig. 147. By 
arranging boards as in Fig. 148 a better 
joint is made than that shown at Fig. 149. 
When mouldings are prepared from wood 
which has been cut so that the annual rings 
are nearly parallel to the breadth (see Fig. 
150), there is almost sure to be more or 
less shrinkage, which will, of course, take 
place in the breadth and thus produce an 




Fig. 150. — Shrinkage of Moulding. 

open mitre as shown, although the work- 
manship may be first rate. Fig. 151 shows 
the best arrangement, the annual rings being 
at right angles to the breadth. 

Cutting Strongest Beam from Round 
Log. 

By mathematical investigation Fig. 152 
shows the graphic method of finding the 
strongest rectangular beam that can be cut 




Fig. 151. — Best Arrangement of Grain in 
Mouldings. 

out of a round log of timber. The diameter 
is divided into three equal parts, and per- 
pendiculars are raised on opposite sides on 
the inner ends of the outer divisions. The 
four points in which the circumference is 
touched are then joined to give the beam 

f b 1 

a e b f. The proportion is 

because by Euclid II. 14, ^ad x 

= f d, and by Euclid I. 47, f b 



a/- 



v/(F D) 2 + D B 2 ^SO A F 

Let ab = 1 ; then fd 



a/(a b) 2 



y§ x 



FB 



^W) 



(p b)' 2 - 



+ (if = A 



, -a/2 F B 

-, AF = yp_ 1 = v /| _ ^_ and = 



a/3 



/3 



A F 




Fig. 152. — Strongest Beam from a Round Log, 

i . y2 i 



v/3 ' v/3 ^2- 



When the diameter of 



i ,7 4.1. a *i v/2 1-414 

log a b = d, the depth ap = z~ =- — — = 

•816c/, and the breadth pb = ■ = = 

v/3 1-732 

■mid. 

It must be fully understood, of course, that 
the above shows only the mathematical 
calculation corresponding to the graphic 




Fig. 153. — Stiffest Beam from a Round Log. 

diagram, and does not in any way prove 
the statement that this beam will be the 
strongest that can be cut out of a round log. 
The calculations necessary to prove that 
statement would probably be a laborious 
matter. But given such a beam, its strength 
could be calculated by ordinary formula, 
and then another beam slightly narrower, 
and a beam slightly broader, both in- 
scribed in the circle, could be tested by 
the same formula. 



38 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 






Cutting Stiffest Beam from Round 
Log. 

The stiffest rectangular beam that can 
be cut out of a round log of timber is shown 
in Fig. 153, where the diameter is divided 
into four equal parts, but otherwise the 
construction and calculation will be on 




Fig. 154.— Lining Log Timber. 



FB 



similar lines to the above, resulting in 

j ' 6 AF 

— — - ; and with a log of diameter ab = 

— v o 

d the depth of the stiffest beam will be 
•866d and the breadth '5d. 

Selecting- Timber. 

See that timber is free from sap, large or 
loose knots, flaws, shakes, stains or blemishes 
of any kind. A light portion near one edge 
indicates sap, and an absence of grain will 
be observed on it. This portion decays 
first and gets soft. The darker the natural 




Fig. 155.— Lining Balk Timber. 



wood, the lighter is the sappy portion usually 
when dry. Good timber should be uniform 
in substance, straight in fibre, and not 
twisted, warped, or waney. Diagonal knots 
are particularly objectionable in timber for 
piles. Good timber should smell sweet 
when fresh cut, and it has a firm, bright 
surface, and does not clog the saw. The 
annular rings should be fairly regular and 
approximately circular ; the closer and nar- 



rower the rings the stronger the timber. 
The colour should be uniform throughout, 
and not become suddenly lighter towards 
the edges. Good timber is sonorous when 
struck ; a dull sound indicates decay. In 
specimens of the same class of timber the 
heavier is generally the stronger. 

Marking Out Timber for Pit Sawing. 

Pit sawyers employ various methods for 
lining timber that is to be sawn ; one reli- 




Fig. 156.— Ochre Box, 

able method is shown by Fig. 154. The 
wedge boy (as he is termed) holds the string 
centrally at one end of the log, and the 
sawyer holds it at the other end. The 
string is then pulled tight, and one of the 
sawyers raises it at the centre (the string 
should not be raised exactly vertical, but 
pulled slightly at one side), then lets it go, 
so as to strike a line the whole length of the 
log. A plumb-line a is then hung over the 
end of the log by one of the sawyers, and 
when perfectly plumb with the centre line, 
it is pulled tightly against the bottom edge 
of the log. The other sawyer pulls the 
string and strikes a central vertical line, as 
shown at b. A similar line is struck at the 
other end of the log, after which the thick- 



Fig. 157.— Wood for Pulling String. 

ness of the planks that are to be sawn is 
pricked off with a pair of compasses, as 
indicated by the dots on the end of the log. 
The plumb-line is again hung over the end 
of the log in perfect line with the compass 
marks. Vertical lines, as before, are then 
struck, then corresponding longitudinal lines. 
When lining a square balk, a centre line is 
first struck, then the thickness of the planks 
is pricked off, as shown in Fig. 155, and the 
lines are struck. The plumb-line is then 
hung over the end, as shown, and the vertical 



TIMBER. 



39 



lines are struck. The log or balk is now 
turned over, and longitudinal lines corre- 
sponding with the vertical lines are struck. 
To make an impression that may be clearly 
seen, the top and end lines are struck with 
a string that has been passed through a 
mixture of red ochre and water of the con- 
sistency of thin paste. The string used for 
lining the under side of the timber is passed 
through whiting. A red or dark line can 
be better followed by the top sawyer, 
while from underneath a white line can be 
best seen. The ochre is placed in a little 
box (see Fig. 156) and water added. There 
is a handle at c, and a notch at d. The 
string is placed in the box and drawn 
through the notch. A thin piece of 
wood, as Fig. 157, is placed on the string 
while it is being pulled through the notch, 
otherwise it would be necessary for the 
finger and thumb to guide the string, and 
to remove the surplus ochre that may be 
on it. 

Weight and Strength of Timber. 

These particulars are given in the accom- 
panying table. 



(1) 


(2) 


(3) 


(4) 


(5) 


(6) 








g 


O <b 


5 8 


Name. 




5«5 


IB O 
1" 




eg g 
H e8 S 


Selected Quality. 


.Bfri 


J 33 


s® 


Ifcs 


<B £'3 




^o 


P H 0Q 


■2 ft 








lbs. 


tons per 


tons per 




tons per 






sq. in. 


sq. m. 




sq. in. 


American red pine . . 


37 





2-2 


4-0 




Ash 


45 


2-0 


3-5 


5-0 





Baltic oak 


48 


3-0 


3-2 


4-3 





Beech 


47 


1-9 


3-8 


4-5 





Elm 


37 


2-0 


3-0 


3-0 





English oak 


50 


3-0 


3-2 


5-0 


•90 


Greenheart 


60 


— 


5-8 


8-0 




Honduras mahogany 


35 


1-5 


2-8 


4-9 


•58 


Kauri pine 


38 


— 


2-8 


4-8 





Larch 


35 


1-5 


2-5 


3-5 





Northern pine 


37 


1-5 


2-9 


4-0 


•60 


Pitchpine 


50 


— 


2-9 


5-0 


•76 


Spanish mahogany . . 


53 


1-8 


3-0 


5-0 


1-9 


Spruce fir 


31 


1-5 


2-5 


3-6 


•22 


Teak 


50 


3-0 


3-8 


5-0 


— 


White pine . . 


28 


- 


1-8 


3-8 


•27 



The safe load in tension and compression 
(columns 3 and 4) would be from one-tenth 
to one-fifteenth of the amounts given. The 
safe bearing pressure across the grain of 
timber as at the ends of a beam will be about 
one-fifth of the amounts given in column 6. 
Column 5 gives the coefficient c in the for- 
mula w = c b d 2 -r- l, and the safe load 
would be about one-sixth of w for temporary 
work, or one-tenth for permanent loads. 



Fig. 158. Fig. 159. Fig. 160. 

Fig. 158.— Beam 6 in. x 6 in. Fig. 159.— Beam 

Fig. 160.— Beam 12 in. x 3 in. 



6 in. 



3 in. 



Calculating Strength of Timber 
Beams. 

The strength of solid timber beams varies 
as the square of the depth, directly as the 
width, and inversely as the span. Thus, in 
a beam 6 in. square (Fig. 158), multiplying 
the width by the square of the depth gives 
6 x 6 2 = 6 x 36 = 216 ; and if this beam 
was sawn down the middle, there would be 
3 x 6 2 = 3 x 36 = 108 (Fig. 159). Another 
case is that of a beam 12 in. deep and 3 in. 
wide (Fig. 160), and the corresponding 
figure then is 3 x 12 2 = 3 x 144 = 432. 
The ordinary formula for the strength of a 
beam lying loose on the bearings at each 
end, and with central load (Fig. 161), is as 

, O 



Fig. 161.— Loose Beam with Central Load. 

follows, when b = breadth in inches, d 2 = 
square of depth in inches, l = length of 
bearing in feet, c = constant, for which 
Barlow and Tredgold give a value for Eiga 
of c = 4f cwt. This constant is obtained 
from the results of trials, but it must be 
noted that such tests vary considerably. 
The strength of timber will vary in the same 
cargo, and allowance must be made for the 
difference in the growth and fibres of the 



40 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



various pieces, and for the effect of shakes, 
knots, etc. For example, the case of a 
balk 13J in. square and 10 ft. 6 in. span 
gave 1,114 cwt. as the result according to 
Tredgold, and 1,120 cwt. according to 
Barlow. The same size and quality of 
timber tested by the Mersey Dock Engineers 




An experiment was made some time ago 

by Kirkaldy on the strength added to a 

beam by the fixing on the top of the beam 

of a flat iron bar. The span of the beam 

was 24 ft., and the depth and width were 

14 in. and 12 in. respectively. According 

to the above formula, with a constant of 3, 

the central breaking load should be 

14 2 x 12 x 3 

= 294 cwt. = 14| tons, or 



Fig. 162.— Beam with Wrought Iron Strap. 

gave a result of 610 cwt. only, against the 
preceding figures. It appears from the 
latter example that the constant should be 
reduced to, say, 2*6 or 2*3, or say 2 '5 to 3 
for Memel timber. The formula then is 



24 
with constant of 2*5 



14 2 x 12 x 2-5 
24 



= 245 



B D^ C 



W 



where w is the breaking weight in cwt. in 
the centre of the span. We then have for 



cwt. = 12 J tons. When the experiment 
was made, however, the beam snapped sud- 
denly with a central load of 10 tons, showing 
that the above constants were too high for 
this case. A similar beam (Fig. 162) was 
then provided with a wrought-iron strap 
fixed on the top, and it was then found that 
the beam failed slowly and gradually under 
a load of 13 tons — an experiment which 
showed that added strength was given to 






Fig. 163. — Cup-shake in Log. 



Fig. 164. — Cup-shake in Balk. 



Fig. 165. — Heart-shake in Log. 



a beam 12 in. wide, 11 in. deep, and 24 ft. 

span, a strength of 

12 x ll 2 x 3 * 

— ^ = 181*5 cwt. = 9 tons H cwt. 

24 2 

Kirkaldy's experiments with a beam of this 
span and size showed the strength to be 
10 tons. It is considered that timber has 
a set with only one-fifth of its breaking load, 
and is really safe when loaded to only one- 
sixth of the breaking load. If the beam is 
fixed at both ends, it is stronger than when 
only supported at the ends as 3 is to 2. 
Some qualities of timber are stronger in 
tension than in compression, whilst others 
have just the opposite qualities. Experi- 
ments show that Dantzig fir is crushed 
before it is torn asunder ; or, in other words, 
that its ultimate compressive stress is less 
than its ultimate tensile stress as 4 is to 5. 



the beam by the addition of the iron bar. 
In other kinds of timber possibly the iron 
strengthening bar should be on the other 
side of the beam. 




Fig. 166. — Heart-shake in Balk. 

Defects in Balk Timber. 

Cup-shakes. — These are cracks extending 
circumferentially at one or more places, 
caused by the separation of the annual rings, 
as in Figs. 163 and 164. 



TIMBER, 



41 



Doatiness. — This is a speckled stain found 
in beech, American oak, and other timber, 
due to incipient decay. It is produced by 
imperfect seasoning or by exposure for a 
long period to a stagnant atmosphere. 




167. — Sapwood in 
Balk. 



Fig. 168. — Star-shake 
in Log. 



Dry Rot. — If the balks have been stacked 
on land with insufficient ventilation, the 
growth of a fungus over them, like white or 
brown roots, may indicate that dry rot has 
already begun, although it is chiefly found 
under kitchen floors. 

Foxiness. — A reddish or yellowish brown 
tint in the grain, caused by incipient decay. 




Fig. 169. — Star-shake in Balk. 

Heart-shakes. — These are splits or clefts 
occurring in the centre of the tree, as in 
Figs. 165 and 166. They are common in 
nearly every variety of timber, and are 
very serious when they twist in the length, 
as they interfere with the conversion of the 
tree into boards or scantlings. They some- 




Fig. 170.— Twisted Fibres. 

times divide the log in two for a few feet 
from the end. 

Knots. — Large, or dead and loose knots 
are objectionable, as they weaken the 
timber, and are unsightly. A timber pile, 



in which knots7occur diagonally, is liable 
to be sheared through the knots or severely 
damaged by the blows of the ram. Dantzic 
timber has the largest knots, spruce the 
hardest. 

Rind-galls. — These are curved swellings 
caused by the growth of new layers over 
a part damaged by insects, or by tearing 




Fig. 171. — Upset or Crushed Fibres. 

off or imperfect lopping of a branch. These 
are shown by the grain being irregular and 
vacuous. 

Sapwood. — This occurs more in some trees 
than in others — say, Dantzic much, pitch- 
pine little. It may be known by its greenish 
tinge, and holding the water longer than the 
sound parts after having been wet. If 
creosoted, the sapwood is as lasting, but 
not so strong as the heartwood. It gener- 
ally occurs at the corners only of the balks, 
which arises from the desire to save as 
much timber as possible. (See Fig. 167.) 




Fig. 172.— Waney Edge in Balk. 

Star-shakes. — When several heart-shakes 
occur in one tree (see Figs. 168 and 169) 
they are called star-shakes from the appear- 
ance produced by their radiation from the 
centre. 

Thunder-shakes. — These are irregular frac- 
tures across the grain, occurring chiefly in 
Honduras mahogany. 

Twisted Fibres. — These are caused by the 
tree being twisted in its growth, from the 
action of the wind upon the head. Timber so 
affected is not suitable for cutting up into 
joists or planks, owing to the fibres running 



42 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



diagonally in any longitudinal cut, as in 
Fig. 170. Oak with twisted fibres will not 
retain its shape when squared, but is very 
suitable for splitting up into wall plugs. 

Upsets. — These are portions of the timber 
where the fibres have been injured by crush- 
ing, as in Fig. 171. 

Waney Edges. — These occur when the top 
end of the tree is not large enough to hold 
up to the full size to which the lower end 
is squared, as shown by Fig. 172. These 
balks may be used for piling without detri- 
ment if the top end be driven downwards. 

Wide Annual Rings. — These generally indi- 
cate soft and weak timber. 

Wind-cracks. — Shakes or splits on the 
sides of a balk of timber, caused by shrinkage 
of the exterior surface, as in Fig. 172, are 
called wind-cracks. 

Wet Rot. — Timber that has been lying long 
in the timber ponds, and subjected to alter- 
nations of wet and dry, may be so soft and 
sodden as to have reached the stage of wet 
rot. The term " wet rot " implies chemical 
decomposition of the wood ; whereas dry 
rot is the result of a fungous growth. 

Dry Rot. 

Cause, Cure, and Prevention. — Dry rot is 
a special form of decay in timber, caused 
by the growth of a fungus, Merulius 
ladhrymans, which spreads over the sur- 
face as a close network of threads, white, 
yellow, or brown, and causes the inside to 
perish and crumble. Various causes may 
combine to render the timber favourable 
to the growth of this fungus — namely, large 
proportion of sapwood ; felled at wrong 
season when full of sap ; if cut down in the 
spring or the fall of the year instead of in 
midwinter or midsummer, when the sap is 
at rest ; stacked for seasoning without suf- 
ficient air spaces being left ; fixed before 
thoroughly seasoned ; painted or varnished 
while containing moisture ; built into wall 
without air space ; covered with linoleum : 
exposed to warm, stagnant air, as under 
kitchen floors. There is no cure when the 
fungus has obtained a good hold. The worst 
must be cut out and remainder painted 
with blue vitriol (cupric sulphate). The 
best preventive is to use only well-seasoned 
timber and to keep it well ventilated. 



Detection and Treatment of Dry Rot. — 
When dry rot is suspected in a floor the 
floor-boards should be lifted at the corners 
of the room, or at dead ends of passages, 
or wherever signs of weakness show them- 
selves, and the surfaces of the joists, wall- 
plates, and under side of the floor-boards 
should be closely examined for fungus, 
mildew, or any unhealthy sign, such as a 
brown semi-charred appearance. If any is 
found, the worst parts should be cut out and 
renewed, the remainder well scraped over, 
including the walls, and well washed with a 
solution of blue copperas (sulphate of copper) . 
If the earth below is found to be damp, a 
layer of cement concrete should be spread 
over it, not less than 4 in. thick. Air bricks 
and ducts should be placed in. the walls on 
opposite sides, to get a through current, as 
moist, warm, stagnant air is the most potent 
aid to dry rot ; and every endeavour should 
be made to obtain thorough ventilation. 
The means of prevention are : Thorough 
seasoning, free ventilation, creosoting or 
charring if necessarily exposed to damp 
earth, and painting with vitriol or cupric 
sulphate. 

Preservation of Wood Underground. 

The best way to preserve from decay wood 
that is to be buried in the ground is to creosote 
the wood ; this does not mean painting the 
wood over with tar, but proper creosoting 
by the regular process. The butt-end of a 
post to be placed in the ground may be 
charred over a wood fire, quenching with 
water when the wood is charred, say, \ in. 
to \ in. deep. This will prevent rotting and 
the attacks of worms, but it is necessary that 
the wood should be previously well seasoned, 
or the confined moisture will cause decay. 
Chloride of zinc and water, about 1 to 4, 
in which wood is steeped under Sir Wm. 
Burnett's system (see p. 34), preserves 
the timber from decay and renders it in- 
combustible. A method sometimes adopted 
is to bed the posts in cement concrete, but 
this is not quite so good as creosoting. 

Soft Woods and Hard Woods. 

Timber trees are usually divided into two 
great classes : — (a) Soft woods or coniferous 
woods ; (b) hardwoods or leaf woods. 



TIMBER. 



43 



So far as the texture and hardness of each 
is concerned, some of the former are realty 
more difficult to work than the latter. For 
example, pitchpine, owing to its resinous 
nature, is usually more difficult to work 
than basswood, or the softer kinds of 
mahogany. The general distinguishing fea- 
tures of soft woods are : — All the trees 
bear cones and never have broad flat leaves. 
The timber usually has distinct annual rings 
formed of two layers, the inner one (known 
as springwood) being soft, porous, and pale 
in colour ; the outer (called autumn wood) 
is harder, more compact, and rilled with 
resinous matter. The whole annual ring 
is formed of long tapering tubes, interlaced, 
and breaking joint with each other, and 
having a small portion of cellular tissue at 
intervals, and resinous matter in the inter- 
stices. Hardwood trees bear broad flat 
leaves, the timber is never resinous. The 
annual rings, owing to slower growth, are 
often much closer together than in softer 
wood. They are of more uniformity in 
colour and hardness, but have more or 
less distinct radial lines, consisting of thin, 
hard vertical plates, formed entirely of 
cellular tissue, the medullary rays or silver- 
grain or flower already mentioned. 

Varieties of Timber. 

Fir Timber, Converted. — Fir timber, when 
sawn into convenient sizes suitable for 
joiner's work, is called deal. It is brought 
into the market sawn into different widths, 
which are often classed as deals, or dis- 
tinguished as battens, deals, and planks. 
They vary from 2 in. to 4 in. thick, but are 
mostly 3 in. thick, and from 8 ft. to over 
20 ft. in length. All that are under 8 ft. 
in length are classed as ends, and are sold 
at a cheaper rate. When 7 in. wide and 
under they are termed battens ; deals, 
from 8 in. to 9 in. ; and planks when above 
9 in. 

Baltic Yellow or Red Deal.— The best 
yellow deal for building purposes is shipped 
from the Russian ports of Petersburg, 
Onega, and Archangel, and the Swedish 
ports of Soderhamn, Gefle, Stockholm, and 
Holmsund. Onega, Archangel, and Gefle 
supply deals of the best quality. The greater 
portion of the Swedish timber is coarse, but 



at the same time some of the very best deals, 
both yellow and white, come from Gefle and 
Soderhamn. The best Swedish deals run 
more sound and even in quality than the 
Russian, owing to the different way in which 
the timber is converted. A balk of Russian 
timber is cut into deals, etc., of one quality, 
and thus they show very many hearts or 
centres. In Swedish timber the inner and 
outer wood in the same balk are converted 
into different quality deals, the centre being 
put into the lower class ; hence the high price 
put upon first-class Swedish deals. Deals 
cut from the centre of the log should not 
be cut into boards ; 4-in. deals are in nearly 
all cases cut from the centre of the balk, and 
consequently are subject to shakes, and un- 
suitable for boards. Swedish 2-in. and 
2J-in. deals of good quality are preferred to 
3-in., as they are cut from the sound outer 
wood. Their value not being generally 
known, they do not fetch such high prices 
as the 3-in. deals. The export of deals from 
the Prussian ports of Dantzic, Memel, 
Stettin, etc., is almost entirely confined to 
yellow planks and deck deals (also called 
red deals), from 2 in. to 4 in. These are 
suitable for scantlings, framing of roofs, 
and many purposes connected with house- 
building, engineering, etc. The reason of 
the timber from the above ports being 
shipped in an unconverted state is that the 
wood, being grown in a warmer climate, is 
coarse in the grain, and could not compete 
in a converted state with the closer- 
grained exports from the more northerly 
ports of the Baltic. Baltic yellow deal or 
red deal is from the Pinus sylvestris, or 
Northern pine. The colour of the wood is 
generally of a reddish yellow or of a honey 
yellow of various degrees of brightness, 
annual rings about T ^ in. wide, the outer 
part being of a bright and reddish colour. 
When knots occur they are from 1 in. up- 
wards in diameter, and not very hard ; they 
are of a rich red brown colour, and thin 
shavings of them are semi-transparent. 
This timber is stronger and more durable 
than white deal {Abies excelsa, described 
below). 

Baltic White Deal or Spruce Fir. — This is 
Abies excelsa, and is used in the common 
qualities for the roughest work — scaffold 



44 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY 



poles, scaffold boards, centering, packing 
cases, etc. — and in the better qualities for 
dressers and table tops, bedroom floor-boards, 
cupboard shelves, etc. The wood is of 
yellowish white, or sometimes of a brownish 
red colour, becoming of a bluish tint when 
exposed to the weather. The annual rings 
are generally clearly defined, the surface 
when planed has a silky lustre, and the 
timber contains a large number of very hard, 
glassy knots. The sapwood is not dis- 
tinguishable from the heart. Baltic white 
deal is recognised chiefly by its small hard 
and dark knots, by its woolliness on leaving 
the saw, and by its weathering to a greyish 
tint. When fresh cut, the grain may be 
more or less pronounced than that of yellow 
deal. It is subject to streaks of resin in 
long cavities, and to loose dead knots. 



/ 



= BEST MIDDLING 



=k iCOOD MIDDLING 



=3 COMMON MIDDLING 
Fig. 173. — Dantzic Timber Quality Marks. 

In white deal or spruce fir the knots are 
small, darker, more brittle, and opaque. 

Scotch Fir. — This is the wood of Finns 
sylvestris, and is called also the Northern 
pine and red or yellow pine. From this the 
timber known as yellow or red deal is ob- 
tained ; it is tough and strong for its weight, 
durable and easily worked, cheap and plenti- 
ful. Comes principally from the north of 
Europe, and is shipped at Baltic ports. 
Characteristics : Colour varies according to 
soil and habitat ; generally of a honey 
yellow, with distinct annual rings darker 
and harder on the outside of each, some 
specimens changing to a reddish cast in 
seasoning, and others brownish. There are 
no medullary rays visible. The best has 
close grain and a medium amount of resin 
in it. The wood is silky when planed, 
and when well seasoned crisp and dry to 
the touch. Its tenacity is 5 tons per 
square inch, and weight 36 lb. per cubic 
foot. It requires periodical painting when 



exposed to the weather. It is used for all 
kinds of carpentry and joinery. Its source 
of supply is chiefly the Baltic ports, whence 
it comes as deals and logs. 

Fir Timber, Unconverted. — All Baltic fir 
is akin to the Scotch fir (Pinus sylvestris) 
or the spruce fir (Abies excelsa), the 
wood of the former being known as red fir, 
Baltic fir, Memel fir, etc., in the uncon- 
verted state, whilst the wood of the spruce 
is known as spruce fir, or white fir if un- 
converted ; but as white planks, deals, or 
battens if converted. At the outset this 
peculiarity of calling the same wood red or 
yellow under different circumstances should 
be noticed, since the terms applied have 
led to the very prevalent and mistaken 
notion that red, yellow, and white denote , 
three, instead of only two, kinds of Baltic 
fir. 

Riga Fir comes from the Russian port of 
that name, north of Memel, and is inferior 
in strength to Dantzic and Memel fir of best 
quality, and does not average so large. It 
runs about 12 in. square and 40 ft. long, but 
it is often preferred for cutting into scant- 
lings, being of straighter grain and freer 
from knots. It is, however, subject to 
heart-shakes. 

White Fir.— But little Baltic white fir 
comes into the market as square timber. 
When it does, it is termed white timber or 
spruce fir ; but spruce poles, or the young 
trees felled and stripped of their branches, 
are imported from Sweden and Norway 
for scaffold poles, the very best being selected 
as ladder poles. They run in lengths of 
from 18 ft. to 50 ft. 

Prussian Fir Timber. — Sources : Memel, 
Dantzic, Stettin, Konigsberg. The use of 
the balks is almost entirely confined to 
heavy timber work, as they are too coarse 
and open in the grain for being wrought for 
joiners' work. They are used for outdoor 
carpentry and heavy woodwork, such as 
piles, girders, roofs, and joists. Dantzic 
— Size : 14 in. to 16 in. square, 20 ft. to 
50 ft. long. Appearance : Subject to cup- 
and star-shakes and wind-cracks. Knots 
large and numerous, often dead and loose ; 
they are very objectionable when grouped 
near the centre of a beam, or for piles when 
diagonal. Annual rings wide, large pro- 



TIMBER. 



45 



portion of sapwood (frequently the whole 
of the four corners of the circumscribing 
square), 20 ft. to 45 ft. long, heart sometimes 
loose and " cuppy." Marks : Scribed near 
centre, as in Fig. 173. It is used for heavy 
outdoor carpentry, where large scantlings 
are required. Memel fir is tolerably free 
from knots, but when they occur the grain 
near them is irregular, and is apt to tear up 
with the plane. 

Norwegian Deals and Balks. — Sources : 
Christiania, Friedrichstadt, Drontheim, 
Dram. Size : Average 8 in. to 9 in. 
square, generally tapered ; scarcely called 
balk timber ; is known as " under-sized." 
Appearance : Much sap. Marks : on balks, 
others by letters, stencilled in blue on ends. 
Uses : Staging, scaffolding, and coarse 
carpentry, the best converted into deals, 
flooring, and imported joinery. Norwegian 
timber is clean and carefully converted, 
but is imported chiefly in the shape of 
prepared flooring and matchboarding. 
Scarce in form of yellow deals, but of high 
quality. Christiania best, but often con- 
tains sap. Christiania white deal used for 
best joinery. Christiania and Dram used 
for upper floors on account of white colour. 
Friedrichstadt has small black knots. Some 
Drammen deals warp and split in drying. 

Swedish Deals. — Sources : Stockholm, 
Gefle. Soderhamn, Gothenburg, Sundsvall, 
Holmsund, Hernosand. The greater por- 
tion of this is coarse and bad, but some of 
the very best Baltic deal comes from Gefle 
and Soderhamn. First qualities have a high 
character for freedom from sap, heart- 
shakes, etc. The lower qualities have the 
usual defects, being sappy and containing 
large, coarse knots. In the best qualities 
the knots are small, and larger in the lower 
qualities. The yellow deal is generally 
small, coarse, and bad, with large loose 
| knots, sappy, liable to warp and twist, but 
variable, the best being equal to Norwegian, 
owing to care in conversion and sorting 
out into different qualities. The cheap 
imported joinery is made from these deals. 
They are suitable for floors where warping 
can be prevented. Gefle and Soderhamn 
deals are sometimes very good. White deals 
from Gothenburg, Hernosand and Sunds- 
vall are used for packing-cases. Gefle and 



Soderhamn deals are good for upper floor- 
ing, dressers, shelves, etc., and backing to 
veneers. There are also said to be red deals 
from the Baltic ports and from Canada, 
from the Pinus rubra, used for mould- 
ings and best joinery, very like Memel. 
Swedish woods are never hammer-marked, 
but invariably branded with letters or 
devices stencilled on the ends in red paint, 
which makes it difficult to judge of their 
quality by inspection, as they are stacked 
in the timber yards with their ends only 
showing. Some of the common fourth - 
and fifth- quality Swedish goods are left 
unmarked, but they may generally be dis- 
tinguished from Russian shipments by the 
bluer colour of the sapwood. The first and 
second qualities in Swedish deals are classed 
together as " mixed," being scarcely ever 



BEST MIDDLING 




GOOD MIDDLING 



COMMON MIDDLING 



Fig. 174. — Riga Timber Quality Marks. 

sorted separately, after which come third- 
down to fifth-quality goods. Deals of lower 
quality than third are nearly always shaky, 
or very full of defects of some kind. 

Russian Timber. — Sources : Petersburg, 
Archangel, Onega, Riga, Wyborg, Narva. 
These yellow deals are the best for general 
building work, more free than other sorts 
from knots, shakes, sap, etc., clean hard 
grain and good wearing surface, but do 
not stand damp well. First three used for 
best floors — all of them for warehouse floors 
and staircases. Wyborg — very good, but 
inclined to sap. Riga — best balk timber. 
Size : Up to 12 in. square, and 40 ft. long. 
Appearance : Knots few and small, very 
little sap, annual rings close, wood close 
and straight-grained, more colour than 
Dantzic. Marks : Scribed at centre, as in 
Fig. 174. Uses : For masts and best car- 
pentry when large enough, also for flooring 
and internal joinery. Petersburg — inclined 
to be shaky. Archangel and Onega — knots 



46 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



often surrounded by dead bark, and drop 
out when timber is worked. The Russian 
white deals shrink and swell with the weather, 
even after painting. Best from Onega. 
Russian deals generally come unmarked 
into the market, or only dry stamped or 
marked at their ends with the blow of a 
branding hammer, such marks being also 
termed hard brands. In some cases where 
the goods are not branded, the second 
quality have a red mark across the ends, 
third- being easily distinguished from first- 
quality goods. The well-known Gromoff 
Petersburg deals are, however, marked 
with " C. and Co.," the initials of the 
shippers (Clarke & Company). 

First Quality Marks 



cfo 


* 


Gromoff or 


1 


Second Quality Marks 




Gromoff or 


* * 




Another good Petersburg 7 brand is 
" P. B." (Peter Belaieff) for best/and" P. B. 
2 " for second quality. 

St. Petersburg Brands : — 

Belaiefi's Shipment. 

First Quality Marks. 

P B S & Co. 

Second Quality Marks. 

P B S & Co. 
2 

Third Quality Marks. 

P B S & Co. 

3 

Russanoff &, Co. 

First 
NRi &S 

Second. 

NR 2 &S 

Third. 

N R 3 & S 



K Pavloff. 



First. 
WOiDA 

LOG 

Second. 

WOLOGDA 



Russian Goods : — 

Imperial Appanage Shipment (Czar's 
Stock). 

ist. 2nd. 



Double 
Eagle 


T 


Double 
Eagle | 


3= 


3rd. 


4th. 




Double 
Eagle 


Double 
Eagle 


M 



Bds. 

White 



3 


± 


r* 










4 



All hammered ou butt with the Imperial 
Arms (double eagle). 

Best Archangel Stock : — 
Maimax Shipment. 
Yeo. 1 A 

* A 

© © 

Onega Wood Co.'s Shipment. 

Deals \ 1 o o 

Battens j 

Boards X Red V Red V Black V Red 

Amossoff, Gernet Shipment. 

A G & Co. AG & Co. 

A B 

A G & Co. A G & Co. 

C D 

Archangel : — 

E. H. Brandt & Co. Shipment. 

1st. 2nd. 3rd. 4th. 

Marks, Archangel : — 

Olsen & Stampe Shipment. 

OS OS OS OS 

I II Ill IV 

Surkow & Shergold Shipment. 

S&S S&S S&S StfcS 
I II III IV 

Surkow & Shergold K E M Shipment. 

KEM. I K E M. 2 K E M. 3 K E IUI. 4 

Russanoff's Mesane Shipment. 

R R R R 

N&S N&S N&S N&S 

12 3 4 

Timbers from Russian and Finland ports 
are dry-stamped on the ends without colour. 



TIMBER. 



47 



American Yellow Pine. — This is the wood 
of Finns strobus, and is known also as 
American yellow deal, Weymouth pine, 
American white pine, pattern-maker's pine, 
etc. It is used chiefly for panels on account 
of its great width, for moulding on account 
of its uniform grain and freedom from 
knots, and for patterns for casting from 
on account of its softness and easy working. 
It is very uniform in texture, of a very pale 
honey-yellow or straw colour, turning brown 
with age, usually free from knots, and 
specially recognised by short, dark, hair- 
like markings in the grain when planed, 
and its light weight. It is subject to cup- 
shakes and to incipient decay, going brown 
and " mothery." It takes glue well, but 
splits in nailing. American woods are not 
branded, as a rule, though some houses use 
brands in imitation of the Baltic marks, 
though without following any definite rules. 
The qualities may, however, very often be 
known by red marks " I.," " II.," " III.," 
upon the sides or ends, but the qualities of 
American yellow deals are easily told by in- 
spection, the custom in the London Docks 
being to stack them on their sides, so as to 
expose their faces to view, and allow of free 
ventilation. Woods from Canadian ports 
have black letters and white letters on the 
ends, and red marks on the edges. American 
yellow pine may be purchased in balks over 
60 ft. in length and 24 in. square. It is 
not so strong as the American red pine, but 
is much lighter, and so is distinguished when 
floating by the height it stands above the 
water. First-quality pine costs more than 
any other soft wood used for joinery. 

American Red Pine. — This is the wood of 
the Pinus mitis, which is called in 
America the yellow pine, and is very like 
the wood of the Scotch fir, though it does 
not equal it in strength or durability, 
neither does it grow so large as the Dantzic 
and Memel timber. Being very straight- 
grained and free from knots, it is valuable 
for joiners' work, when a stronger wood 
than yellow pine (described in the previous 
paragraph) is required. It is more ex- 
pensive than Baltic fir, consequently is not 
so largely used in England. Red pine has 
of late years been used rather extensively 
owing to . the scarcity of good yellow deal 



and the high price of yellow pine. The cost 
is about the same as Gromoff. 

American White Spruce. — This is very 
like Baltic white timber, but, not being 
equal to it in durability or strength, it does 
not command such a large sale as the Baltic 
white timber. It is the produce of two 
different trees, the Abies alba, or white 
spruce, and the Abies nigra, or black spruce, 
so named from the colour of their bark ; 
the colour of the wood is white in both 
cases. The black spruce timber is far better 
than the white, is more plentiful, and grows 
to a greater size. 

Elm. — Common English elm (TJlmus 
campestris) is of a reddish brown colour 
with light sapwood, the grain being very 
irregular and there being numerous small 
knots. It warps and twists freely, but is 
very durable if kept constantly under 
water or constantly dry, but it will not 
bear alternations of wet and dry. One 
peculiarity characteristic of elm is that the 
sap turns white and becomes foxey, and 
decays quickly. It is used for coffins, piles 
under foundations, pulley blocks, stable 
fittings, etc. It is chiefly home-grown. 

American Elm. — The wood generally 
known as American, elm is one of the United 
States timbers {TJlmus Americana, L.) 
locally known as white elm, or water elm. 
The wood is highly valued, has many proper- 
ties similar to those of American rock elm 
TJlmus racemosa Thomas) — though not, 
perhaps, quite so tough as that timber 
— and is very extensively used in cooperage , 
saddlery, axe-helves, etc., and wagon- and 
boat-building. The tree which furnishes 
the wood grows to large dimensions, and 
is widely distributed over all the States east 
of the Mississippi River. 

Pitchpine. — This is Pinus Australis or 
Pinus resinosa, and is recognised by 
its weight and strong reddish yellow grain, 
with distinct and regular annual rings. It 
must be well seasoned and free from sap and 
shakes. Pitchpine is very free from knots, 
but when they occur they are large and 
transparent, and give variety to the grain - 
It is used chiefly for treads of stairs and 
flooring, on account of its hardness and wear- 
resisting qualities ; for doors, staircases, 
strings, handrails, and balusters on account 



48 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



of its strongly marked and handsome grain ; 
for open timber roofs on account of its 
strength and appearance ; and for outdoor 
carpentry, such as jetties, on account of its 
length and size. The ornamental grain of 
pitchpine is due to the annual rings, not the 
medullary rays as in oak. and the method 
of sawing oak will therefore not suit at all. 
The object should be to cut as many boards 
as possible tangent to the annual rings. 
About one log in a hundred will show more 
or less waviness of the grain owing to an ir- 
regular growth in the tree, and about one in 
a thousand will be worth very careful 
conversion. To avoid turning the log so 
often in cutting the boards, as in Fig. 137 (p. 
35), they might be all cut parallel, so 
obtaining a greater number of wide boards 
but not of such good figure, the grain 
showing straight lines towards the edges 
instead of a fair pattern throughout. Careful 
and complete seasoning would be required, 
on account of the great shrinkage occurring. 

Oak. — English oak (Quercus) is of a 
light brown or brownish yellow, close- 
grained, tough, more irregular in its growth 
than other varieties, and heavier. Its 
tenacity is, say, 6J tons per square inch, and 
its weight, 55 lb. per cubic foot. Baltic oak 
from Dantzic or Riga is rather darker in 
colour, close-grained, and compact, and its 
weight is 49 lb. per cubic foot. Riga oak 
has more flower than Dantzic. American 
or Quebec oak is a reddish brown, with a 
coarser grain, not so strong or durable as 
English oak, but straighter in the grain. Its 
tenacity is 4 tons per square inch, and 
weight 53 lb. per cubic foot. African oak 
is not a true oak. Exposed to the weather, 
oak changes from a light brown or reddish 
grey to an ashen grey, and becomes striated 
from the softer parts decaying before the 
harder. In presence of iron it is blackened 
by moisture owing to the formation of 
tannate of iron, or ordinary black ink. 

Wainscot Oak. — This, known also as 
' : Dutch wainscot," is a variety of oak. It 
has a straight grain free from knots, is 
easily worked, and not liable to warp. In 
conversion it is cut to show the flower or 
sectional plates of medullary rays. It is 
used for partitions, dados, and wall panel- 
ling generally ; also for doors and windows 



in high-class joinery. Its sources are Hol- 
land and Riga, being imported in semi- 
circular logs. Wainscot oak obtained from 
Riga is spoken of as Riga wainscot. The 
term "wainscot" describes the method 
that is adopted, when converting the log 
into boards, in order to show a large amount 
of silver grain ; such ornamental boards are 
specially suitable for wainscoting. The 
oaks that grow around the Baltic are closely 
related to those that grow in England. 
Quercus robur affords the best timber 
as regards strength and durability under 
exposure, though some of the other varieties 
(as, for instance, the Quercus sessiliflora, 
or cluster-fruited oak) have an equally 
pretty figure. Riga oak is not held in such 
high esteem as English oak for outdoor 
work and for purposes in which great ten- 
sile or compressional strength is necessary ; 
but as the medullary rays are very promin- 
ent, Riga oak affords a very pretty silver 
grain. Riga oak may be the wood of either 
of the two varieties of Quercus mentioned 
above. 

Chestnut. — The chestnut timber used for 
building is the sweet or Spanish chestnut 
(Castanea edibilis), not the common 
horse chestnut, which is a whitish wood of 
but little use. The Spanish chestnut is 
grown only to a small extent in Great Britain 
at the present time ; it mrvy be known by 
the leaves being smoother, more parallel, 
and not radiating so decidedly from one 
stalk. Spanish chestnut closely resembles 
coarse-grained oak in colour and in texture, 
and the wood in all its stages of manufac- 
ture is frequently mistaken for oak. The 
bark of the log is like oak bark. The planks 
are of practically identical appearance, and 
even after the wood is dressed up the like- 
ness is still very close. However, when the 
chestnut is old it has rather more of a cin- 
namon cast of colour, has less sapwood, and 
generally a closer grain, although softer 
and not so heavy as oak. The chief dis- 
tinguishing characteristic of the chestnut is 
the absence of the distinct medullary rays 
which produce the flower in oak ; and old 
roof-timbers, benches, and church-fittings 
may be discriminated in this way, also by 
the chestnut being more liable to split in 
nailing, while the nails never blacken the 



TIMBER 



49 



timber as they do in oak (see p. 48). 
Reports vary, but it seems to be decided 
that the roof of Westminster Hall is of oak, 
and that of the circular part of the Temple 
Church of chestnut. Chestnut is largely 
used in cabinet work for the interior fittings 
of bureaux, writing cases, etc. Horse chest- 
nut is a white, even, close-grained wood, 
which could not possibly be confounded with 
Spanish chestnut when the difference has 
been once pointed out. Horse chestnut is, 
however, often substituted for other white 
woods of close texture, such as lime, holly, 
and sycamore, and is the inferior material 
of these three woods. Horse chestnut warps 
and twists badly, and is liable to turn yellow. 
At the present time both woods are largely 
used in fretwork. Spanish chestnut was for- 

Fig. 175. — Owner's Mark on Teak. 

merly used in conjunction with, and also as 
a substitute for oak. 

Teak. — This wood (Tectona grandis) 
is generally used in situations where red 
deal and other similar woods are liable to 
decay or to be destroyed by worms, but its 
cost prevents it from being used extensively 
for constructional work. In the construc- 
tion of hothouses it would be a decided 
advantage to use teak for all the sills, and 
for any parts of the staging that are likely 
to be alternately wet and dry ; or for any 
timbers that, through being in contact with 
the earth, are always wet ; but it is doubtful 
whether the extra cost of teak would be re- 
paid if it were used for all the woodwork of 
the house, such as bars, rails, mullions, etc. 
Teak is used principally for staircases and 
doors in public buildings. Being considered 
more fireproof than any other wood, its use 
is enforced by district surveyors under the 
Building Act. In special positions, such as 
those enumerated above, where it is not prac- 
ticable to paint the woodwork, or where, as in 
the case of sills, the paint becomes worn off, 
the greasy nature of teak and the poisonous 
oil that it contains preserve the wood from 
decav, and enable it to withstand the attacks 



of the spores of dry-rot fungus, without any 
necessity for covering the surface with any 
protective coating of paint, varnish, etc. 
As the life of a piece of teak under such con- 
ditions would in all probability be three or 
four times that of northern pine, it may be 
inferred that the extra initial cost is com- 
pensated by the saving in repairs. Teak 
logs vary generally from 10 in. to 24 in. 
square, and 15 ft. to 40 ft. long. When 
first removed from the ship they are of a 
good cinnamon brown colour, but soon 
bleach in the sun, and might at first sight 



= 63 CUB. FT. 
21 CUB. FT. 




% = 






= 26 CUB. FT. 



= 26 CUB. FT. 



/ = 16 CUB. FT. 

Fig. 176. — Chalk Marks on Logs Showing 
Cubic Contents. 

be mistaken for oak. They are stacked in 
piles according to the ownership, with the 
butt ends flush and the other ends irregular. 
A few business cards of the timber-broker's 
firm are generally nailed here and there. 
The balks are squared up fairly straight and 
true, but sometimes waney at top end, with 
heart out of centre owing to the tree having 
been bent during growth. The ends are 
stamped with the mark of the firm, often 
in two or three places, initial letters in a 
heart, as in Fig. 175, standing for Messrs. 

. Also with the number of the log, 

and alongside it a mark, thus *, or the word 
No. preceding the figures to show in which 
direction they should be read. The dimen- 
sions of the log are stamped in 1-in. figures, 
thus 193 x 22J x 21 meaning 19 ft. 3 in; 
long by 22J in. wide by 21 in. thickj The 
cubic contents are marked in red chalk, as 
in the strokes of Fig. 176. These are similar 
in composition to the quantity marks on 
Baltic timber ; their value is shown added in 



50 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



Fig. 176. After the logs are all stacked, 
the invoice mark, as ¥ rf ¥ , and number of 
the log are painted on the end of each with 
white paint to identify them more rapidly ; 
and on the end of a log showing on the out- 
side of the stack the name of ship and 
number of pile are also painted. The 
number of pile and name of ship are also 
painted at the side of each pile, on one 
of the logs, as in Fig. 177. The principal 
teak yard in London is at the South- 
West India Dock. 

Mahogany. — The true mahogany (Swietenia 
mahogani) is a dense, hard, strong wood, 
of straight growth and close texture, 
and is a rich brownish red in colour, with 
dark wavy markings ; the pores are 
small and are filled with a chalk-like sub- 
stance. The weight of the wood, when 
dry, should average about 65 lb. per cubic 
foot. The commoner substitutes for true 



Tile 



A 

20 

IE nrico 



•£45 



Fig. 177. — Shipping Marks. 

mahogany are numerous, but Honduras 
mahogany (baywood) and Panama maho- 
gany may be taken as examples. The 
weights of these kinds of mahogany vary 
from 29 lb. to 35 lb. per cubic foot ; hence, 
weight is evidently one of the surest tests 
of the quality of mahogany. Generally 
speaking, these commoner varieties are 
much lighter in colour than true mahogany, 
and are without the fine black lines running 
through the grain that form one of the dis- 
tinguishing characteristics of true mahogany. 
The hardness of true mahogany is about 
twice as great as that of the commoner 
kinds ; that is, the best mahogany may 
be taken as being equal in wearing power to 
hornbeam, while the inferior kinds would 
not be harder than Weymouth pine. A large 
quantity of the light - coloured inferior 
mahogany is used for furniture, etc., and 
after having been treated with a specially 



prepared darkening oil, or darkened by 
some other method and polished, in no way 
differs in appearance (as far as the un- 
initiated can judge) from the best kinds of 
mahogany. Light weight and lack of resist- 
ance to indentation should, however, make 
one suspect the quality of any wood that 
claims to be true mahogany. However, it 
may be said that " Panama mahogany " 
includes several useful varieties of woods, 
to this class belonging St. Domingo, City 
St. Domingo, and Cuba mahoganies. The 
grain of these varieties is very fine and even, 
and the surface of the wood is lustrous, and 
often has a watered or satiny appearance. 
These varieties of mahogany are not so 
dark coloured nor so dense as the true 
mahogany (Swietenia mahogani). Some 
of the most prominent timber experts state 
that the characteristics of the various 
mahoganies are so confusing that great 
difficulty occurs at times in distinguishing 
one variety from another ; in fact, some go 
so far as to say that the wood that is sold 
and known commercially as Swietenia 
mahogani, or true mahogany, is almost 
entirely different from the specimens of that 
wood that are exhibited at Kew. This does 
not prove that these woods are in any way 
inferior to true mahogany, but that they 
are obtained from another and an entirely 
different kind of tree. Hence, therefore, 
density and colour are two important factors 
that should be considered when comparing 
one variety of mahogany with another. 
Other more minute points of difference are 
only apparent when the wood is examined 
through a microscope. The term " Spanish 
mahogany " is used principally in connec- 
tion with Cuban mahogany, but sometimes 
St. Domingo mahogany is termed Spanish 
mahogany. The term is at best but a vague 
one, and is rarely used in connection with 
shipments of timber that arrive in this 
country from abroad. In such cases the 
cargo is usually spoken of as so many logs 
of Cuban (St. Domingo, Mexican, or other) 
mahogany. In a general sense the term 
" Spanish mahogany " is used in contra- 
distinction to baywood or Honduras ma- 
hogany. No rule or regulation states pre- 
cisely that Spanish mahogany must fulfil 
certain specified conditions, and a timber 






TIMBER. 



51 



merchant may fairly claim that he acts 
justly by his customer if he supplies him 
with a moderately dense, sound quantity 
of Cuban or St. Domingo mahogany, and 
has not supplied him with baywood (Hon- 
duras mahogany) nor any of the many other 
so-called mahoganies, the marked charac- 
teristics of which differ widely from Cuban 
mahogany. Such spurious mahoganies are, 
for example, the so-called African maho- 
gany (Khaya Senegalensis) or the wood 
that is known as Australian mahogany 
{Dysoxylum Fraserianum). 

Timbers for Various Purposes. 

In the following list the timbers are stated 
in order of superiority for the purposes 
named. All the timber should be specified 
according to the precise quality required, 
and not merely as " the best." 

Dock Gates. — Greenheart, oak, creosoted 
Memel. The specification of the 60-ft. 
entrance lock gates at the Victoria Dock, 
Hull, provided for ribs, heads, and heels of 
single squared timbers, either of English oak 
of the very best and quickest grown timber, 
or of African oak, but no mixture of the 
two. The planking was specified to be of 
greenheart. 

Doors External for Public Buildings. — 
Oak used most frequently, next in order 
mahogany, teak, and pitchpine. 

Doors Internal for more Important Build- 
ings. — Oak, mahogany, teak, walnut, pitch- 
pine. Other hardwoods are also used, ac- 
cording to, or in keeping with, other internal 
fittings. For ordinary buildings, yellow 
deal for framing and yellow pine for panels. 

Floor Boards. — Oak, pitchpine, Stock- 
holm or Gefle yellow deal ; and for upper 
floors, Dram or Christiania white deal. For 
common floor-boarding, Swedish or Nor- 
wegian yellow or white deal. 

Floor Joists. — Kussian deals make the 
best joists, as they are straight-grained and 
free from knots, sound and tough. Baltic 
fir is cheaper and next best. Swedish and 
Norwegian not reliable. 

Half-timber Framing. — Oak is best, as it 
resists decay the longest, and can be ob- 
tained naturally shaped in curves or straight, 
as may be required. The colour and tex- 
ture are also suitable for architectural effect. 



Teak is good, but does not weather quite so 
good a colour ; it is apt to split with nail- 
ing. Larch is next best. 

Pile Foundations. — Greenheart, oak, elm, 
creosoted Memel, alder. Greenheart is un- 
doubtedly best, but the cost is prohibitive 
except for marine work, where it is some- 
times essential, as sea-worms will not attack 
it. Oak is next best when it can be afforded. 
Memel fir (Pinus sylvestris) in 13 in. 
to 14 in. whole timbers, creosoted or in its 
natural state, is the most suitable under 
ordinary circumstances, owing to its con- 
venient size, length, and general character. 
Riga fir is generally too small, and Dantzic 
fir too large and coarse. Pitchpine is con- 
sidered suitable by some ; its chief advantage 
is the large size and great length in which 
it may be obtained. American elm and 
English elm, beech, and alder are suitable 
if wholly immersed, but not otherwise. 

Planking to Earth Waggons. — Elm, with 
ash for shafts, if any. 

Roof Trusses. — Oak, chestnut, pitchpine,. 
Baltic fir (Dantzic, Memel, or Riga). For 
tie-beams to open timber roof 40-ft. span 
pitchpine is best, as it can be obtained free 
from knots, in long straight lengths, and 
the grain is suitable for exposure either 
plain or varnished. Oregon pine is suitable 
for similar reasons, but not so well marked 
in the grain. Riga fir is good material for 
roof timbers, but difficult to obtain in long 
lengths. For tie-beam of king-post roof 
truss, the same as above, or pitchpine, 
if it is to be wrought and varnished. 

Shop Fronts. — Mahogany is the favourite 
material, and weathers well if kept French 
polished ; black-walnut and teak are perhaps 
next in order. 

Treads of Stairs. — Oak, pitchpine, Memel 
fir, ordinary yellow deal. \ A 

Weather-boarding. — Oak is best under all 
circumstances, but is expensive. Larch 
(Larix Europoea) perhaps stands next, as 
it resists the weather well and bears nails 
without splitting. Ordinary weather-board- 
ing consists of yellow deal from various 
ports — say, four out of a 2J-in. by 7-in. 
batten or 3-in. by 9-in. deal cut feather- 
edged. For work to be wrought and 
painted, American red fir is clean-grained 
and cheap. For very common rough work 



52 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



white spruce deal may be used as being the 
cheapest. 

Window-sills. — Oak or teak for best work ; 
occasionally pitchpine is used, but it is not 
so durable as either of the former. 

Brands and Shipping Marks on 
Timber. 

Simple Explanation. — A few brands and 
marks have already been illustrated, but 
the subject needs special explanation, there 
being a very general ignorance as to the 
reasons for, and meanings of, the great 
number of marks found on imported timber. 
The difficulty of identifying parcels of 
timber consigned in the same freight, or 
stored in the same place, but belonging to 
different owners, was no doubt the original 
reason for the introduction of a marking 
system ; the extension of the system to 
marks that indicate quality was the natural 
sequel to the marks of ownership. There 
is nothing of a mysterious or cryptic nature 
in this system of timber marks, nor should 
the various marks be regarded in the light 
of a secret code ; the great increase in the 
number of manufacturers and the conse- 
quent multiplication of brands are the only 
causes that have brought about any ob- 
scurity that may be thought to exist. There 
is also generally an entire want of organisa- 
tion, each new manufacturer being abso- 
lutely at liberty to adopt any brand or 
mark that he may think fit to adopt ; and 
though, in most cases, respect is paid to old- 
established marks, plenty of examples of 
repetition and overlapping exist. Reduced 
to simple terms, the system (if system it can 
be^called) resolves itself into a parallel of 
the imaginary case described below. John 
Brown is a sawmill proprietor and forest 
owner in Sweden. He manufactures sawn 
wood goods for the English market, and in 
order to distinguish the goods produced at 
his mills from the goods of other sawmillers 
he stamps or stencils on the end of each 
piece a more or less abbreviated form of his 
own name ; and, at the same time, uses 
variation in the arrangement of the letter- 
ing in order to indicate differences in quality. 
Thus he may export six grades or qualities 
of material : — 



The 1st quality may have J B on the end, 
2nd „ „ ,. J B N 



3rd 


„ „ J+B+N 


4th 


„ „ J * B * N 


5th 


,. „ j_B— N 


unsorted „ 


„ „ J N B N 



or if, instead of firsts and seconds, a mixed 
grade is substituted (consisting of mixed 
firsts and seconds), the mark will probably 
be J *• B. John Brown makes no secret 
of these marks, and would gladly inform 
any inquirer of the significance (as to quality) 
of any given brand. In fact, he is at much 
pains to advertise the fact that these classes 
of material are manufactured by him, and 
that the above arrangement of initials is 
to be taken as an indication of the compara- 
tive qualities of the stuff. The two real 
examples given below will show how the 
matter works out in practice. 

Holmsunds Marks. — The Holmsunds Ak- 
tiebolag (Holmsunds Share Company) manu- 
facture and export sawn goods and planed 
goods from Holmsunds, Sweden, and the 
following is their advertised quality code : — 



Sawn Goods. 



Mixed 

Thirds ... 
Fourths . . . 
Fifths ... 
Sixths 

Inferior Sixths 



H N 



Planed Goods. 

Firsts , 

Seconds 

Thirds 

Fourths ... 

Unsorted (Sawn or Planed) . 



D 

D 

D 

H F D 
H M S 
H S U S 

H S * N D 

H S * N D 

H L N D 

H L D 

H S U N D 



Here, obviously, the word Holmsunds has 
been made use of as the base for quality 
variations. 

Wifsta Warfs Marks.— The Wifsta Warfs 
Bolag, a sawmilling firm in the Sundswall 
district of Sweden, exports under the follow- 
ing marks (also, very clearly, derived from 
the name) : — 



Mixed 

Thirds 

Fourths 

Fifths 

Sixths 

Unsorted 



W W B 
WS W 
WT W 
W F W 
WWW 
W WWW 



TIMBER. 



53 



A fact that should be noted with respect to 
Swedish goods is that where a mixed grade 
is shipped usually no separate firsts and 
seconds are exported, as these best qualities 
are not sorted from one another. 

List of Marks. — In the same way nearly 
all other firms in the Baltic and Norway trade 
make use of some simple method of signify- 
ing qualities, in which the initials of the 
head of the firm or of the company (where 
a company is in proprietorship) form the 
chief distinguishing features. Obviously, 
therefore, no universal key can exist that 
will at once make clear all details as to 
qualities, port of shipment, etc., except it 
be in the nature of a long list of names and 
addresses of manufacturers, and of the 



initials and symbols that are peculiar to 
the productions of each. Such a list has 
been compiled, and is in general use by 
timber merchants and all connected in any 
way with the timber trade ; it contains 
upwards of two thousand marks and brands. 
One of the essentials of such a work is that 
it should be kept up to date, as new firms 
and symbols are constantly appearing on 
the market, while others fall off from time 
to time. Lastly, the marking, when applied 
to logs, assumes several new characters ; 
it may be said that frequently group 
numbers, cutting numbers, private sub- 
owner numbers, and marks, contents marks, 
and even dates, are sometimes placed on 
the ends and sides of logs: 



JOINTS. 



Introduction. — Full instructions on setting 
out/ 5 cutting, and fitting most of the joints 
used in carpentry and joinery are given in 
the companion volume, " Woodworking," 



to provide a collection of illustrations handy 
for reference, so that the present treatment 
of technical woodworking may not be in- 
complete. 



, 




Fig. 178.— Straight Halved Fig. 179.— Fig. 180.— Angle Halved Fig. 181.— Cross-halved 

Joint. Angle Halved Joint, Apart. (or Cross Lap) Joint. 

Joint. 




Fig. 182. — Dovetail Lap 

Joint. Fig. 183. — Bevelled Fig. 184. — Shouldered 

Halving. Dovetail Halving. Fig. 185.— Single Notching. 




Fig. 186. — Double Notching. 




Fig. 187.— 

Dovetail Notching, 

Wedged. 



Fig. 188. — Dovetail Notching. 



and the reader is assumed to be familiar with 
all these processes. The object of the 
present chapter is merely to present brief 
particulars of the joints in general use and 



Joints in Carpentry. 

Halved Joints. — The simplest joints used 
in carpentry are the various forms of 
halving : simple halved joints (Figs. 178 



54 



JOINTS. 



55 




Fig. 189.— Tredgold 
Notching. 




Pig. 192.— Bridle Joint. 




Pig. 195. — Stump or Stub 
Tenon. 




Fig. 190. — Cogging. 




Fig. 193.— Oblique Bridle Joint. 




Fig. 196. — Shouldered Tenon. 




Fig. 191. — Bird's-mouthed 
Joint. 




Fig. 194.— Dowelled 
Post and Sill. 







Fig. 197.— Divided Tenon. 




Fig. 198.— Inserting Tenon in Chase Mortise. 

to 181), dovetail halving (Fig. 182), bevelled 
halving (Fig. 183), and shouldered dovetail 
halving (Fig. 184). 



Notched and Other Joints. — Of the many 
forms of notching there are : single notch- 
ing (Fig. 185), double notching (Fig. 1*0), 
dovetail notching (Figs. 187 &iad 188), and 
Tredgold notching (Fig. 189). Cogging is 
shown by Fig. 190, the bird's-mouthed joint 
by Fig. 191, the bridle joint by Figs. 192 
and 193, and dowelling of wood to stone by 
Fig. 191. 

Tenon Joints (Carpenters'). — Of tenon 
joints there is the stump, or stub tenon (Fig. 
195) ; the shouldered tenon (Fig. 196) ; 
the divided tenon (Fig. 197) ; the chase 
mortise (Fig. 198), in the side of a timber, 
with one cheek cut away and the depth 
gradually tapering out to the face of the 



56 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 




Fig. 199. — Section of Tusk Tenon Joint 




Fig. 200.— Parts of Tusk- 
tenoned Joint. 

timber. It is used in framed and 
doubled floors, for enabling short 
joists, such, as ceiling joists between 
the binders, to be got into place after 
the larger timbers are fixed, as shown 
in the illustration. The tusk tenon is shown 
by Figs. 199 to 201 ; struts tenoned into 
the heads of king- or 1 queen-posts are 
shown by Figs. 202 to 204. 



Fig. 201 — 
Wedged Tusk Tenon Joint. 



Toe Joints. — Simple toe joints are shown 
by Figs. 205 and 206, and a toe joint with 
tenon by Fig. 207. 

Gantry Strut Joints. — Bird's -mouth and 




Fig. 202. Fig. 203. Fig. 204. 

Fig. 202. — Strut Tenoned into King- or Queen-Post. 

Fig. 203. — Principal Rafter Tenoned into Queen- 
Post, Straining Beam Joggled into same. 

Fig. 204. — Principal Rafters Tenoned into King- 
Post. 



Fig. 205.— Toe Joint 
between Principal 
Rafter and Strut. 



Fig. 206.— Toe Joint 
between Vertical 
Post and Strut. 



mitred butt joints for a gantry strut are 
shown by Figs. 208 and 209 respectively. 






JOINTS. 



57 





Fig. 209. 



Fig. 208. — Bird's-mouth Joint between Strut and 
Straining Piece, or Head. 

Fig. 209. — Mitre Butt Joint between Straining 
Piece and Strut. 



Fig. 207.— Toe Joint with Tenon. 



Fig. 210. — Dovetailed Halving Bolted. 





Fig. 211. — Common Fished Joint. 

-6~ 




Fig. 212. — Lapped Joint with Keys and Straps. 

A A A 



Fig. 213. — Raking Scarf with Butt End. 





Fig. 214.— Tabled Joint 



Fig. 215.— Tabled Scarf with Folding Wedges. 
3 ==£ A, 




Fig. 216.— Tabled and Splayed Scarf. 

■A__^. A_ -A- A — ^A_ 



Fig. 218.— Splayed Scarf with Folding Wedges. 



Fig. 217. 



-Indented Beams for Lengthening and 
Strengthening. 




-*r~ p -Or 

Fig. 220.— Fished and Tabled Joint. 

Joints for Lengthening Beams and Posts. 
— A joint suitable for tension only is the 
dovetailed halving (Fig. 210). A joint 
suitable for compression only is the common 
fished joint (Fig. 211). Joints suitable for 
cross strain only are as follows : Lapped, 
with keys and straps (Fig. 212), and the 
raking scarf with butt end (Fig. 213). 
Joints suitable for tension and compression 
are as follows : Tabled (Fig. 214), and the 
tabled scarf with folding wedges (Fig. 215). 

3* 




Fig. 221.— Fished and Tabled Joint. 

Joints suitable for tension and cross strain 
are as follows : Tabled and splayed scarf 
(Fig. 216), indented beams for lengthening 
and strengthening (Fig. 217), and the splayed 
scarf with folding wedges and iron plate 
covering joint on tension side (Fig. 218). A 
joint suitable for compression and cross 



58 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 




Fig. 222.— Tabled Scarf with Keys and Plates. 




Fig. 224.— Fished Joint with Hardwood Keys. 




Fig. 226. — Dovetail Splayed Joint. 





Fig. 229.— 
Vertical Scarf. 





Fig. 232.— 
Parallel Scarf 
with Joggled 
Ends. 



Fig. 230. 



Fig. 231 — 

Double Forked 

Joint Apart. 

Fig. 230.— 

Double Halved 

or Double 

Forked Joint 

Together. 





Fig. 223.— Fished Joint, Keyed and Bolted. 




Fig. 225.— Splayed Scarf with Folding Wedges 
and Iron Fish Plates. 




Fig. 227. — Dovetail Scarf. 







Fig. 228. — Raking Scarf used for Ridges, etc. 





Fig. 233.— 
Splayed Scarf. 



strain is the fished joint with oblique keys 
(Fig. 219). Joints suitable for tension, 
compression, and cross strain are as follows 
Fished and tabled (Figs. 220 and 221) 
tabled scarf, with keys and plates (Fig. 222) 



Fig. 234. — Single Fished Fig. 235. — Double Fished 
Butt Joint when Post Butt Joint for Detached 
is Braced. Post. 

fished, keyed, and bolted;(Fig. 223) ; fished, 
with hardwood keys (Fig. 224) ; and the 
splayed scarf with iron fish plates and bolts 
(Fig. 225), which is used in the warehouses 
at the South-West India Dock, London. 
Other joints used for lengthening plates 
and ridges are shown at Figs. 226, 227, and 



JOINTS. 



59 



228. Joints for beams and posts are : the 
vertical scarf — a halved joint (Fig. 229), 
double halved joint (Figs. 230 and 231), 
parallel scarf with joggled ends (Fig. 232), 
splayed scarf (Fig. 233), single fished butt 
joint when the post is braced (Fig. 234), 
and the double fished butt joint (Fig. 235) 
when the post is detached. 



say 10 in. by 3 in. The joint may also 
shear across bcoigf, therefore section at 
360 



b c or g f must equal 



1-3 



277, say 28 in. 



by 10 in. The joint may also be crushed 
at b d or g h, therefore section at b d or g h 

must equal -y-r- = 36, say 10 in. by 3J in. 



d 


b 
c 

""""l: 


-> 



Fig. 236.— Tabled Scarf Joint. 



Rule for Proportioning Parts of Scarf. — 
Tredgold gives the following practical rules 
for proportioning the different parts of a 
scarf according to the strength possessed 
by the kind of timber in which it is formed, 
to resist tensional, compressional, or shear- 
ing forces respectively. In Fig. 236 c d 
must be to c b in the ratio that the force 
to resist detrusion bears in the direct 
cohesion of the material — that is, in oak, 
ash, elm, c d must be equal to from eight 
to ten times c b ; in fir and other straight- 
grained woods cd must be equal to from 
sixteen to twenty times c b. The sum of 
the depth of the indents should be equal to 
one and one-third depth of beam. The 
length of scarf should bear the following 
proportion to the depth of the beam : — 



Wood Used 


Without bolts 


With bolts 


With bolts 
and indents 


Hardwood (oak, ash, 

elm) 
Fir and other 

straight - grained 

woods 


6 times 
1.2 „ 


3 times 
6 „ 


2 times 

4 ,, 



Calculation of a scarfed joint with folding 
wedges as Fig. 237 : — 



Per sq. in. 

= 12 cwt. 
= 10 „ 
= 1-3 „ 



Working resistance to tearing . . 
, , , , compression 

,, ,, shearing.. 

Load equals, say, 360 cwt. direct tension 
beyond that taken by bolts or plates. The 
joint may tear across a b or d e (Fig. 237), 

Ofif\ 

therefore section at a b must equal -r^r = 30, 



Thus the beam should be about 10 in.' by 
10 in., with wedges as shown ; but in ordinary 
practice the folding wedges do not exceed 
one-fourth the depth of the beam, and are 
usually placed square to the rake of the 
scarf, the scarf being further strengthened 
by bolts and plates. 

Strength of Joints in Struts and Beams. — 
If two deals are bolted together, withfdis- 
tance pieces between, they will be stronger 
than a solid timber strut of the same sec- 
tional area, because the dimension of 
" least width " in the formula for calcula- 
tion of strength will be increased. There 




Fig. 237.— Splayed Scarf with Folding Wedges. 

would be no appreciable advantage in 
making the distance pieces of different thick- 
nesses, to swell or reduce the middle dia- 
meter ; they should be all alike, and enough 
to make the combined thickness not less 
than three-fourths of the width of the deals, 
and the distance apart in feet should be 
equal to the length of the deal in feet mul- 
tiplied by its thickness in inches and divided 
by the width in inches. Single J-in. bolts 
are of no use in rough carpentry, except for 
very small work ; instead, two f -in. bolts 
should be placed diagonally through each 
block. Horizontal connecting rods in 
machinery are sometimes swelled in the 
middle to allow for the cross strain upon 



60 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



Figs. 238 and 239.— Con- 
necting Post and Beams 
by Tenoning and Cog- 
ging. 




Fig. 240. Fig. 241. 

Figs. 240 and 241. — Securing Joints 

between Post and Beams by Straps and 

Bolts. 



Fig. 246.— Detail of Form of 
Staging stronger than that 
shown by Fig. 245. 




Fig. 242 



Figs. 242 and 243.— Joints and Fastenings be- 
tween Post, Corbel and Beam for Heavy Stage. 



Fig. 247. — Upper Portion of Staging Support- 
ing Heavy Loads ; Head Beam Halved and Bolted 
to Corbel. 






JOINTS. 



61 



them in addition to the end-long strain, 
while vertical struts have no cross strain 
to meet. 




the pieces are put together the joint is 
masked by the bead, and the tongue pre- 
vents dust and draught from passing 
through, as in Fig. 263. A slip feather is 
a piece of wood inserted in plough grooves, 
as in Fig. 260, to strengthen a glued joint, 
or to keep out the dust. 
It may be of soft wood, 
and is then in short lengths, 
made by cutting pieces 
1 in. wide off the end of 
a plank, turning the pieces 
over, and cutting them into 
thin strips, with the grain 
across their length. If hard 
wood is used, the grain 
may run in the direction 
of the length. The slip feathers may also 
be double, or dovetailed. 



Fig. 248. — Conventional 

View of Staging with Head 

Beam Halved and Bolted 

to Corbel. 



Jointing Beams to Posts and Struts. — 
The usual methods of forming joints between 
beams, posts, struts, and braces as used in 
the construction of gantries, stagings, jetties, 
bridges, etc., are illustrated by Figs. 238 to 
254. The inscriptions to the illustrations 
make the methods quite clear to under- 
stand. 

Joints in Joinery. 

Edge Joints. — Eleven joints used in con- 
necting boards edge to edge are shown by 





Fig. 249. Fig. 250. 

Fig. 249. — Strut and Post Joint Supported by 

Cleat Spiked to Post. 

Fig. 250. — Brace and Post Joint. Brace Tenoned 

into Post : Cleat Joggled in and Spiked to Post. 

Right Angle Joints. — Fourteen styles of 
angle joints are shown by Figs. 266 to 279. 

Obtuse Angle Joints. — Four kinds'of these 
joints are illustrated by Figs. 280 to 283. 




Fig. 251. Fig. 252. 

Fig. 251. — Mitred Butt and Tenoned Joint between 
Brace and Straining Piece. 

Fig. 252. — Double Abutment Joint between Strut, 
Head, and Straining Piece. 

Figs. 255 to 265. Matchboarding is thin 
stuff with a tongue and bead worked on one 
edge and a groove on the other, so that when 



Fig. 253. Fig. 254. 

Fig. 253. — Treble Abutment Joint between Strut 

and Straining Piece. 

Fig. 254. — Tenoned and Bird's-mouth Shouldered 

Joint between Strut and Straining Piece. 

Dovetail Joints. — These are known in 
great variety, but it will be sufficient to 
show a few kinds only : the ordinary dove- 



62 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 

WT7727PZ 



mmm 



Fig. 255.— Edge Butt Joint. 



^Mk 



Fig. 257. — Rebated and Filleted Joint. 



Fig. 256. — Rebated Joint. 



Fig. 258. — Grooved and Tongued Joint. 



mmm^Mm * m 



vmm 



Fig. 259.— Rebated, Grooved, and Tongued Joint. Fi S- 260.— Ploughed and Cross Tongued Joint. 

WL 



Fig. 261. — Dovetail Slip-feather Joint. 



Fig. 262. — Matched and Beaded Joint. 



Fig. 263. — Matched and Vee Jointed. 



Fig. 265. — Dowelled Joint. 

tailing (Figs. 284 and 285), lapped dovetail 
(Fig. 286), two secret or double-lap or 
rebated dovetails (Figs. 287 and 288), and 
the secret mitred dovetail (Fig. 289). 
The box pin joint (Fig. 290) is not a 
dovetail joint, but has some of the latter's 



Fig. 264. — Splay-rebated Joint. 

characteristics. The dovetail ledged and 
the diminished dovetail ledged are shown 
respectively by Figs. 291 and 292. 

Dowelled Joint. — The ordinary dowelled 
joint is represented by Fig. 293 ; sections 
showing a dowel fitted incorrectly and cor- 
rectly are /represented by Figs. 294 and 295 
respectively. A right angle dowelled joint 
is shown by Fig. 296. Allied to the dowel 
joint is the screwed straight joint (Figs. 297 






Fig. 266. — Plain Butt Joint. Fig. 267. — Rebated Butt Joint. Fig. 268. — Plain Mitre Joint. 






Fig. 269.— Butt Joint Tongued. Fig. 270.— Mitre Joint Tongued. 



Fig. 271. — Rebated and Mitre 
Joint. 



JOINTS. 



63 




Fig. 272.— Fig. 273.— Fig. 274.— Fig. 275.— 

Mitred, Grooved, and Rebated, Mitred, and Rebated, Tongued, and Rebated and Grooved 

Tongued Joint. Double-tongued Joint. Staff Beaded Joint. Joint to Nosing. 




EMI 

Fig. 276.— 
Glued Blockings. 



Fig. 277.— Fig- 278.— Fig. 279.— 

Butt Joint with Flush Rebated and Staff Beaded Rebated, Grooved, and 
Beads. Joint. Staff Beaded Joint. 




Fig. 280.— 
Obtuse Angle 
Grooved and 
Tongued Joint, 
with Bead to 
Break Joint. 




Fig. 283.— 
Obtuse Angle Re- 
bated, Grooved, 
and Staff Beaded 
Joint. 




Fig. 281 — 
Obtuse Angle 
Rebated Joint. 




Fig. 282.— 

Obtuse Angle 

Mitred, Grooved, 

and Tongued 

Joint. 




Fig. 284. — Box Dovetail Joint formed 
by Several Boards. 




Fig. 290. — Box Pin Joint. 



Fig. 291. — Dovetail Lsdged. 



JOINTS. 



65 




Fig. 292. — Diminished Dovetail Ledged 




j Fig. 295. — Dowelled Joint 
Correctly Made. 




Fig. 300. — Sectional View of Screwed Joint. 




Fig. 294. — Dowelled Joint with Excessive 
Countersinking and Rounding. 




M I 1 v 

mm 


111 1 ! 1 "') 1 

ilhifjl 

H|ii|iii 


Hi | 


n l|HI|i 
llii'lP 1 '' 1 

FT? 1 ',iill 


mi 


\\\\ 




i! 


I ,.l 


M' 1,11 1 
111 Hi' 1 ! 

1 


i , \\* 




''h Til 

I' 
'II 


Mil III'. 

11 II Ml 

'"i Mil ' 

Ml l I 
"iiiS'l 


"!iil £ 


T'iS l! 


\i WhUli 


!»»U., 11 



mm 



ii'iiii'iO 

\\\m\\ 



i.iiiii 
iiiilh 



.1! 
•Ill 



JU 



/ 



; J '.fap™ - 



'I'll 

fill' 
i. "i 

'I! 



:(H 



Ml 



LLT" 

Fig. 297. Fig. 298. Fig. 299. 

Fig. 297. — Screwed Joint Complete. 

Fig. 298. — Screwed Joint, before Sliding into 

Position. 

Fig. 299. — Edges of Boards to be Screw Jointed. 

to 300) ; the screw heads enter the holes 
bored for them, the edge is then slotted for 
about | in. beyond the hole to allow the 
stem of the screw to pass along, the head 
projecting beyond the stem forms the key, 
and then the boards are merely slid together 
tightly, so forming a strong joint which can 
be taken apart easily. 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY 




Jig. 306. — Pair of Single Tenons with Grooves 
and Slip Feathers. 



JOINTS. 



67 



Housing. — The simple housing joint is 
shown by Fig. 301. 

Tenon Joints (Joiners'). — Some tenon 
joints have already been shown under the 

| heading, " Joints in Carpentry " (p. 55). 
Further tenon joints, more especially used 
in joinery, are : the simple open tenon and 
mortise (Fig. 302) ; closed mortise and 

i tenon (Fig. 303) ; pair of single tenons, 

| commonly called " double " tenons (Fig. 

j 304) ; double or twin tenons (Fig. 305) ; 
pair of single tenons, with grooves and slip 
feathers (Fig. 306) ; haunched tenon (Fig. 
307) ; dovetail tenon (Fig.. 308) ; pinned 
tenon (Fig. 309). Stump or stub tenons 
and tusk tenons are also used in joinery, 
and have already been illustrated (Figs. 195 








Fig. 311. — Foxtail Tenons with and without 
Housing. 

and 200, pp. 55 and 56). The foxtail tenon 
(Fig. 30) is a good joint ; alternative methods 
(with and without housing) of applying 
this in fitting rails into an oak gate-post are 
shown by Fig. 311. 

Proportioning Tenons. — There is no uni- 
versal rule for proportioning tenons, but 
the practice is to give from half to the whole 
of the width of the rail, when this does 
not exceed 5 in., for the width of the tenons. 
If more space than half were given to a 
haunched tenon, the end of the stile would 
be liable to be driven out in wedging up, 
and ft there is no reason why more space 
should be given. Wide tenons are objection- 
able, owing to their liability to shrink from 
the wedges or the sides of the mortises. 

Applications of Tenon Joints. — With re- 
gard to the application of the various tenon 
joints, a few of these are noted below : 
A simple tenon, one-third thickness of the 



stuff, is used in framing together pieces of 
the same size, the mortise being just long 
enough to allow of a wedge being driven in 
on each side of the tenon to secure it. A 
pair of single tenons, usually called a double 
tenon, is used for connecting the middle 
rail of a door to the stiles. A haunched 
tenon for connecting the top rail of a door 
to the stiles ; the tenon being half the width 
of the top rail leaves a haunch or haunching 
to prevent the rail from twisting. A stump 
or stub tenon is used at the foot of a post to 
prevent movement. A tusk tenon is used 
in framing trimmers to trimming joists, to 




Fig. 312. — Hammer-headed Key Joint. 

obtain the maximum support with the 
minimum reduction of strength. A tenon 
with only one shoulder is used in framed 
and braced batten doors, and in skylights, 
when the rail requires to be kept thin for 
other parts to pass over; this is known 
as a barefaced tenon. A pair of double 
tenons is used for the lock rail of a thick 
door, to receive a mortise lock. 

Hammer-headed Key Joint. — A conven- 
tional view of a hammer-headed key joint 
apart is presented by Fig. 312. 

Special Joints. — Many other joints adapted 
to particular purposes are described in 
subsequent sections. Reference to these 
may easily be found by consulting the 
index. 



FLOORS. 



General Considerations. — The remarks in 
this paragraph will be found applicable to 
all sorts of floors. The joists should be laid 
across the narrowest part of the room, and 
girders and binders should be so arranged 
as to take a bearing on a solid pier or wall, 



wet, for as long a period as possible before 
they are required for use. Where such" an 
arrangement is possible it is well to have^the 
boards laid face downwards for some months 
in the position they are to 'occupy before 
they are finally nailed. 




Fig. 313.— Method of Supporting Joists round Brickwork Fender in Basement. 



and not over door or window openings. In 
cases where a long distance has to be tra- 
versed by a joist, which is supported by 
one or more girders in the length, it should 
be made as long as possible. By this means 
the strength of the joist is greatly increased, 
as also is its usefulness as a tie to the walls. 
Flooring-boards should be cut and prepared, 
and stacked in the open air, with free ventila- 
tion all round, with proper protection from 



68 



Basement or Ground Floors. 

The floor in a basement storey, or on 
the ground level where there is no base- 
ment, is formed of joists laid on wooden 
sleepers, themselves bedded on dwarf walls 
(Figs. 313 and 314). The walls and sleepers 
are usually 4 ft. or 5 ft. apart, and the joists 
4 in. to 6 in. deep. Occasionally the walls 
and sleepers are further apart, and then 
joists 6 in. or even 8 in. deep are used. Fig. 



FLOORS. 



69 



313 is a conventional view, and Fig. 314 a 
section through a floor of this description, 
clearly showing how the joists are supported 
by the brick fender round the fireplace. 
Oak is considered best for sleepers, and to 
ensure of its being thoroughly seasoned, 



Single Floors. 

The simplest floor consists of a row of 
beams or joists, varying in thickness and 
depth with the width or bearing between 
the walls on which they are supported. 
To the upper sides of these joists is nailed 




YZZZZZZ22 






2,'; ^b a (- 



',. O k 






o 






f. ' ■ 

O 

o 



o 



Fig. 314. — Section through Basement or Ground Floor. 




Fig. 315.— Plan of Single Floor showing Trimming to Fireplaces, Well-hole, etc. 



ship oak is sometimes specified. Formerly 
it was the practice, more so than at present, 
to notch or cog the joists to the sleepers. 
When the joists are deep enough, rows of 
herringbone strutting are introduced, as 
indicated at b (Fig. 314), cut and fixed as 
shown later by Fig. 317. 



the floor-boarding, and to the under side 
the laths which carry the ceiling. These 
joists should not be placed at a greater 
distance than 15 in. from centre to centre. 
An ordinary example of a single floor is 
shown at Fig. 315, this figure being 
the plan of the timber of a floor of two 



70 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



rooms, and well-hole for staircase for a 
dwelling-house, 34 ft. from front to back, 
and 20 ft. wide in the clear ; it shows also the 
trimming for two 6 -ft. chimney-breasts in 
flank-wall, and for well-hole at opposite 
flank next the back wall. The well-hole is 



7 ft. wide and 12 ft. long. The floor is con- 
structed to carry two framed partitions, one 
18 ft. from, and parallel to, the front wall, 
and the other extending from this partition 
to the back wall along the well-hole. The 
middle bearing is required to be under the 



Fig. 316.— View of Tusk Tenon 

and Keyed Joint to Trimmers 

and Joists. 




Figs. 318 and 319.— 

Alternative Methods 

of Halving Joists on 

Partition Head. 



FLOORS. 



71 



first-mentioned partition. The trimming 
joist is 11 in. by 3J in., and is placed 18 in. 
from the chimney-breast. The short trim- 
mers are 11 in. by 3 in. and represented not 
as resting in the party wall, but as being 
supported on iron corbels built in the wall. 
Fig. 316 shows, to the left, an isometric 
view of the tusked and keyed joint to the 
trimming round chimney-breast ; to the 
right, it shows a sectional isometric view 
through joint of trimmer and tailing joist. 
It also represents the kind of joint that 




Figs. 323 and 324. — Alternative Methods 
oT Housing^ Joists to Trimmers. 



7^ 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



would be used to connect the staircase 
trimmer and joists shown in well. Fig. 317 
(p. 70) gives a view of the herringbone 
strutting (2 in. by 1J in.), four rows of which 
are indicated on the plan. The joists 
going from back to front are required to be 




T RIMMINC 



COMMON OR 



RIDGING 



Fig. 325.— Plan of Binder or Double Floor. 

34 ft. 9 in. long ; therefore all, or the greater 
part, would have to be formed of two lengths 
and halved on the middle bearing ; alterna- 
tive methods of doing this are shown by 
Figs. 318 and 319. 



parallel with the chimney-breast, and the i 
trimmers which carry the joists are against 
the sides of the breasts. Fig. 320 is a re- 
verse case, there being only one trimmer, 
which is parallel to the breast, but two trim- 
ming joists, these being at right angles to 




Fig. 327. — Section through Binder showing 

Bridging Joists Cogged, and Alternative Methods 

of Connection with Ceiling Joists. 

it. Fig. 321 is a section through the trim- 
mer, hearth, coach head brick arch, etc., 
shown in plan at Fig. 320. s (Fig. 321) is 
a feathered-edge piece of board (a springing 
piece) nailed to the trimmer for the arch to 



SPLAVEO ME1ADINC 




tQUBi-E ri_OCR Off JF WITH 8INDERS A FRAME.O FLOOR 



Fig. 326. — Section through Joists, showing Side of Binder supported by Wall. 



Trimming Round Openings. 

In projections where fireplaces and flues 
(usually known as chimney breasts) occur 
in walls it is necessary to trim round them, 
so that the nearest timber in front shall be 
at least 18 in. distant, whilst that at the 
sides may be only an inch or so. In the 
plan (Fig. 315) the trimming joist runs 



butt against ; f is a fillet nailed to the trim- 
ming joists so as to support the piece of 
scantling to which the laths are nailed. 
This construction is clearly shown at b 
(Fig. 322). When a trimmer has to support 
an arch, to prevent any likelihood of the 
arch forcing it back, one or two iron bolts 
are inserted, one end being bedded and 



FLOORS. 



73 



I hooked into the brickwork, the other having mers. These are generally adopted in 

i a screw or nut, as indicated at a (Fig. 322). positions where there is not sufficient space 

Figs'. 323 and 324 show alternative simple to allow of their being inserted with the 

I methods of housing short joists into trim- usual tusk tenon. Trimmers and joists to 




Fig. 328. — Binder Chased-mortised for Ceiling 
Joists. 




Fig. 329. — Ceil- 
ing Joists con- 
nected to Binder 
by Fillet. 



Fig. 330. — Under Side of Floor with Wrought Binder. 



74 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



f 



which they are connected should always be 
thicker than the ordinary joists. A common 
rule is to make the trimmers and trimming 
joists J in. thicker for each joist carried. 
Single floors may span as great a distance as 
18 ft. by using 11-in. by 3-in. joists stiffened 
with two or three rows of herring-bone or 
solid strutting. 

Double Floors. 

When the distance between the support- 
ing walls exceeds 14 ft. or 15 ft., it is usual 
to place binders or girders of wood or iron 
at intervals of from 6 ft. to 10 ft., and on 
these to support the bridging joists. Floors 
so constructed are known as double floors, 
having two sets of joists, the lower set 
(ceiling joists) being smaller, and used solely 
to support the ceiling. Thus the ceiling, 
being supported independently of the floor 
joists above, is not liable to be jarred by 




SECTION ACR05S JOISTS 



II 



Fig. 332. — Section across Bridging Joists showing Method of Fixing 
Ceiling Joists. 

the traffic overhead, and the connection 
between the ceiling and floor being broken 
by the space between the two sets of joists, 
sound from above is not so audible below 
as when the floor is single. 

Wooden Binders. — The outline plan of a 
double floor is given at Fig. 325, and Fig. 

326 is a section through the joists, flooring, 
and ceiling, showing the side of the binder 
and also the method of supporting it. Fig. 

327 is a section through the binder showing 
alternative ways of connecting the ceiling 
joists with the binder by mortise and tenon 
joints. Ceiling joists which have to be got 
into position after the binders are built in 
have their tenons inserted at one end into 
an ordinary mortise, whereas the tenon at 
the other end has to slide into a chase 
mortise as indicated at Fig. 328. To avoid 
weakening the binder, sometimes a fillet is 
nailed on so as to support the ceiling joists, 
which are notched to it as shown at Fig. 
329. Fig. 330 illustrates the case where 



FLOORS. 



75 



ceiling joists are not used. The binder is sion of sound would be lessened by sound 

wrought and stopped chamfered ; the laths boarding and pugging as shown, 
for the ceiling would be nailed to the under Iron Binders.— Two sections through a 

edges of the bridging joists. The transmis- double floor are presented by Figs. 331 and 




Fig. 334.— View of Part of Under Side of Floor adjacent to Chimney Breast. 



76 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY 



Fig. 335.— Method of Fitting Oak 
Border to Floor Boards. 




FLOORS. 



77 



332. Just above the lath-and-plaster ceil- Fig. 335 shows a method of mitreing and 
ing are the ceiling joists, and running parallel fitting an oak border to the floor-boards 
with these is a 10-in. by 5-in. rolled-iron ready to receive the hearth. Figs. 336 and 




Fig. 339. — Steel Binder Projecting Part of its 
Depth below Joists. 

joist (the binder). Fig. 333 shows the 
general construction of this floor, the special 
feature of which is that the ceiling joists 




Fig. 340. — Section showing Arrangement to avoid 
Binder Showing. 

337 are sections through a somewhat similar 
floor, but of a more ordinary character, the 
ceiling joists being fixed to each bridging 



u4wwv -n- 




Fig. 341. — Plan of a Framed Floor, showing Girders, Binders, Joists, Trimming, etc. 

are notched to and supported by every joist. The binders are of rolled-iron or 
fourth bridging joist, which are stouter and steel 11 in. deep and 4J in. wide in the 
deeper, as shown at a and b (Fig. 334). flanges and 10 ft. apart. Fig. 338 illus- 



78 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 




Framed Floors. 

The plan of a framed floor, 45 ft. by 26 ft., 
is shown at Fig. 341. Three girders, Sup- 
ported at their centres by iron columns, 
carry the binders as shown. The sizes of 
the various members are : Girders, 14 in. 
by 10 in. sawn, reversed, and bolted with 
a f-in. rolled flitch in the centre ; binders, 



Fig. 342. — Section through Girder and Joists 




Fig. 343.— Conventional View of Girders, 
Binders, Joists, and Head of Column. 



trates a case where the bridging joist rests 
direct on the iron binder, solid strutting 
being inserted between the joists to keep 
them vertical. The ceiling is formed of either 
lath and plaster or match-boarding fixed 
direct to the joists, the binder being cased 
round as shown. Fig. 339 illustrates an 
arrangement of casing the under side of a 
girder or binder when it is deeper than the 
joists. If constructed as shown at Fig. 340 a 
flat ceiling can be obtained under the binder ; 
but this construction cannot be adopted 
when the iron member has to serve as a 
girder for floors having heavy loads to carry, 
as a single binder would not be deep enough. ' 




General View of Part of Framed Floor. 






FLOORS. 



7^> 



9 in. by 6 in.; bridging joists, 6 in. by clear. Figs. 344 to 346 are details of a double 
2J in. ; ceiling joists, 3 in. by 2 in. Figs, floor for a smaller span. Figs. 345 and 346 
342 and 343 will make the construction are views taken at right angles to each 

•FIRRINC PIECE 




Fig. 345. — Section taken through Girder and Joists. 

ji i. 
7 x li BOARDSn f x NO 20 HOOP (RON > 




Fig. 346.— Section taken at Right Angles to Fig. 345. 




Fig. 347.— View of Under Side of Framed Floor, with Wood Ceiling and Beams Wrought 

and Moulded. 



80 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



other. Fig. 347 is a conventional view 
showing girder, 12 in. by 10 in. ; binders, 
8 in. by 6 in. ; bridging joists, 8 in. by 
2J in-. ; and matchboard ceiling. There 



ends of the binders, and thus they are well 
supported without the girder being weak- 
ened. Two different forms of malleable 
iron stirrups are illustrated by Figs. 348 




Fig. 348. — Binders supported on Girders by Malleable Iron Stirrup. 




Fig. 350.— 
Wrought-iron Stirrup. 



Fig. 349.— 
Another Form of Stirrup 



Fig. 351. — Method of Hanging Ceiling Joists from Bridging Joists. 



being no ceiling joists, the girders and binders 
have their under-edges moulded. To inter- 
cept sound, the floor may be pugged as 
shown. The strength of wooden girders 
often being weakened to the extent of one- 



and 349, and one of wrought iron by Fig. 
350. A system of supporting ceiling joists 
by connecting them to the bridging joists 
by nailing them to strips of wood is shown 
at Fig. 351, but it has become obsolete. 




Fig. 352. Fig. 353. 

Figs. 352 and 353. — Beam Trussed with One Tension Rod. 

eighth by being mortised and housed to Floors with Trussed Beams. 

receive the binders, various forms of stirrup In warehouses and factories where there 

irons have been introduced to carry the are heavy loads and vibration the girders 



FLOORS. 



81 



are sometimes strengthened by trussing. 
Various methods are adopted. Two ways 
of trussing by wrought-iron rods are shown 
by Figs. 352 to 358. In the case of Fig. 352 
the beam is sawn down the middle, ends 
reversed, and bolted together with blocks 




(see Fig. 317) for the insertion of the nails. 
A great advantage in this form of strutting 
is that, although the joists may shrink in 
thickness and depth, the strutting remains 
firm owing to the greatest shrinkage taking 
place in depth. This will be made clear by 
Fig. 359. Let a, b, c, d represent the original 
position of the strutting ; then upon shrink- 
age taking place, the struts move about 




Fig. 354.— Enlarged View of End A (Fig. 352). Fig. 355.— View of Cast-iron Strut B (Fig. 352). 



between, so as to allow of the iron rod passing 
through the iron heel plate at each end 
(Fig. 354), so that it can be tightened. 
Figs. 356, 357, and 358 illustrate a very 
strong form of trussing by using a solid beam 
and a tension rod on each side. 



their centre 0, and tend to the positions 
indicated by the dotted lines a' ¥ and c' d', 
the greatest movement being produced by 
the depth shrinkage ; thus the greater this 
is the more the compression on the struts, 
which would produce greater distances 




Fig. 356. 
Figs. 356 and 357. — Beam trussed with Two Tension Rods. 



Fig. 357. 



Strutting. 

Herringbone Strutting. — Cross-pieces of 
wood, about 2 in. by 1J in., or 2 in. by 2 in., 
are frequently fixed between joists, as al- 
ready shown by Figs. 315, 317, and 332, with 




Fig. 358.— Enlarged View of Cast-iron Shoe C 
(Fig. 356). 

the view of strengthening and increasing 
the rigidity of the whole floor. To prevent 
splitting at the ends by boring, it is usual 
to make a saw kerf at each end of the struts 



between the joists, were it not for the floor 
boards being nailed to the joists. 

Solid Strutting. — When pieces of board 
are cut and simply driven in tightly between 
the joists and nailed, they often become 
loose some months after the floor is com- 
pleted, owing to the shrinkage of the joists 




Fig. 359.— Movement of Herringbone Strutting 
produced by Shrinkage of Joists. 

in thickness, and thus they are of very little 
use for the purpose for which they were in- 
tended. Solid strutting is a most valuable 
form for stiffening and strengthening floors 



82 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



of warehouses, etc., if a wrought -iron bar or 
tube is passed through each joist a little 
above its centre. The bar must have a 
thread and nut at each end working against 
an iron plate, so that the struts and joists 
may be tightened perfectly close to each 
other. A view of this arrangement is given 
at Fig. 360. 

Supporting Joists by Walls. 

Joists are now often supported direct by 
the brickwork or masonry, or they may take 
their bearing on a tar and sanded or gal- 
vanised iron bar. Figs. 361 to 364 show 
four general methods of bedding plates for 
joists in or upon the walls. Fig. 364 shows 
the plate supported by iron corbels built 
in the walls. So that the plate may not 
project below the ceiling, sometimes the 
joists are notched down to bring their lower 
edges level with the under side of the plate ; 
but, of course, this weakens the joists. 




Fig. 360. — View of Solid Strutting and Bolt. 

Determining Sizes of Joists. 

Common joists are spaced 12 in. apart, 
with herringbone strutting every 4 ft. 
Dimensions for common joists are as follow : 







Depth in 


Inches. 




Span or Length 










of Bearing in 






















13 in. 


2 in. 


2', in. 


8 in. 




thick. 


thick. 


thick. 


thick. 


6 


6 


°5 


5* 


5 


8 


<h 


7 


6.^ 


H 


10 


8§ 


8 


U 


t 


12 


9| 


9| 


8k 


8 


14 


10i 


10 


9a- 


9 


16 


lit 


11 


10^ 


10 



The nearest available size should be used, 
and 2 -in. ceiling joists should be J in. deep 



per foot span. The trimming joist is made 
J in. thicker for every common joist carried 
by the trimmer. A rough rule used some 
years ago was to fix the depth of the joists 
at one-sixteenth of the clear span, or j in. to 
each foot between the bearings. The 
Ecclesiastical Commissioners prescribe the 
size of joists to be 9 in. by 2J in. for 12-ft. 
spans and 12 in. by 3 in. for 18-ft. spans. A 
metropolitan authority has fixed upon 8J 
in. by 2 J in., and 11 J in. by 2 J in. for the 




Fig. 361. — Joists supported by Wall Plate built 
in Wall. 

same respective bearings. By the rough 

rule of one-sixteenth the distance between 

the bearings, the depth for an 18-ft. span 

should be : — 

18 x 12 . 
Yq = 13^ m. 

If, however, the thickness of the joist is 
taken to be 3 in., the strength of the joist will 
allow for 

135 s x 3 x 2-5 



18 



76 cwt. 



central breaking load, or 

~ = 12 J cwt. 

central safe load, which is considerably more 
than is required (see the calculation given 
below). 

Weight on Joists. 

The weight on ordinary joists of, say, 
18-ft. span, 12 in. deep, and 3 in. thick, and 
1 ft. 3 in. centres, may be taken to be as 
follows : — The superficial space carried on 
the joist is 18 ft. by 1 ft, 3 in. = 22'5 sq. 
ft., and this covered with people at, say, 
84 lb. per square foot amounts to 22*5 ft. 



FLOORS. 



by 841b. 

The sound-boarding and pug- 
ging may be taken at 100 lb. per 
yd. super., and the lath, plaster, 
etc., at 80 lb., giving a total 
weight of 180 lb. per yd., or per 

ft. super. ^ = 20 lb. This 

multiplied into the area gives 
22-5 x 20 lb. 

The floorboards 
will be 18 ft. by 
15 in. by 1J in. = 
the joists 18 ft. 
by 1 ft. by 3 in. = 



1,8901b. 



1J cwt. per ft. super., churches and public 
buildings 1J cwt., and warehouses 2 J cwt. 
The weight of the structure must be allowed 
for in addition to the above loads, and this 
is most important to bear in mind in con- 
nection with fireproof floors. For dwelling 
houses the 1 J cwt. is usually made to include 
the weight of the floor itself. 



450 



2-81 ft. cube 



4*50 ft. cube 

and the total weight of timber 

will be 7-30 ft. by 35 lb. 

Thus the total distributed 

weight is 

™ . • 1 2 '597 

This is equal to — ^— 



257 

2,597 
= 1,2991b. central load, 



or 11*6 cwt. The strength of the joists 

under this load will be, by the formula 

12' 2 x 3 x 2*5 
already given, —^ — - = 60 cwt. 




breaking load, or — 



18 
10 cwt. safe load. 



Estimating Load on Floors. 

Floors should be estimated for according 
to the nature of the building and the probable 



Fig. 363.— Wall Corbelled Out to carry Wall Plate. 

Bridging Joist for i8=ft. Span, Load 
i cwt. per ft. super. 

Let it be required to determine the size of 
a bridging joist suitable for a span of 18 ft. 
and capable of carrying a load of 1 cwt. per 
ft. super., the joists fixed 12 in. centre to 




Fig. 362.— Joists supported by Wall 
Plate bedded on Set-off. 



Fig. 364.- 



-Plate carried by Wrought-iron Corbels built 
in Wall. 



load. A crowd of persons is variously esti- 
mated to weigh from 41 lb. to 147'4 lb. per 
square foot of the surface covered. Probably 
a safe average would be 1 cwt. per ft. super, 
considered as a live load. Dwelling houses 
are usually designed for a dead load of 



centre. The preliminary calculation will 
be as follows : (1) The total weight on one 
joist is equal to the load on the half space 
on either side of the joist — that is, 6 in. 
on each side. Then the total load = 18 x 
1 ft. x 1 cwt. = 18 cwt. (2) The load 



84 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



that may be safely carried on the joist is a 
certain fraction of the breaking weight 
— that is, of the load that would break the 
joist. This fraction varies, for the different 
purposes for which the scantling is to be used, 
from one-fifth to one-tenth. In the case 
of floor timbers, where the joist has to sus- 
tain a live load, it should not exceed one- 
seventh or one-eighth the breaking weight. 
In the example given above, the joist has to 
carry a load of 18 cwt. Hence the breaking 
weight is equal to 18 x 8 = 114 cwt. (3) 
The breadth or thickness of the joist must 
bear a certain proportion to the depth so as 
to be satisfactory as regards strength and 
economy. Let this proportion for a bridg- 
ing joist be decided by the formula b = '3 d, 
where b = the breadth and D the depth — 
all in inches. It is evident that the joist 
in such a case must be considered as 
strutted. The preliminary calculations as 
regards the joist having been made, a for- 
mula applicable to every case for calculating 
the strength of timber, no matter where or 
for what purpose the scantling may be re- 
quired, must be decided on. A piece of 
wood of the same kind as that used for the 
joist, and 1 ft. long by 1 in. square, loaded 
at the centre till it breaks, will be the con- 
stant for all purposes of calculation when 
dealing with the same material. It will be 
found that the strength varies directly as 
the breadth, directly as the square of the 
depth, and inversely as the length ; this 
may be proved by increasing the breadth, 
length, and depth, and carefully noting the 
difference in the loads required to break 
the beam in each case. Briefly, the formula 

may be stated thus : BAY. = — j that 

is, for a central load. But a floor- joist 
carries a distributed load, and this load will 
be found to be equal to twice the load it 
will carry when centrally loaded. Then the 
formula will be : — 



BAY. = 

114 = 

and d 3 = 



2 c b cV- 



2 x 4 x -3d x d 2 
18 

144 x 18 



.-. d = s/1080 = 10 in. nearly, 
and b = -3 x d = 3 x 10 = 3 in. 

Let c be the constant = 4 cwt. ; b the 
breadth in inches ; d the depth in inches ; 
L the length in feet ; BAY. the breaking 
weight = 114 cwt. Therefore a joist 10 in. 
by 3 in. would be suitable for a span of 
18 ft., and would carry a load of 1 cwt. per 
ft. super. The following rule is given by 
Tredgold for fir joist : — 



■> - Vi 



x 2-2 



In this case a breadth must be assumed, 
which is, in most cases, a difficult and very 
uncertain proceeding ; however, assuming 
for the present example the breadth to be 
3 in., 
Then 



-7». 



0.0 



b = ;/**i! x 



o.o. 



D = \/\ 08 



o.o 



4-5 x 2-2 = 9 9 in. 



The result is very much the same as in the 
previous example, but the advantage of the 
first method will be obvious when dealing 
with further calculations, as it is applicable 
to other beams than floor timber. 

Determining Size of Binder. 

Say it is required to determine the size 
of a binder 10 ft. long and fixed 6 ft. apart, 
capable of carrying a floor weighing 1 cwt. 
per ft. super. Make, as before, the neces- 
sary preliminary calculation. (1) Total load 
carried by the binder =10 x 6 = 60 cwt. 
(2) Breaking weight (say) seven times safe 
load = 60 x 7 = 420 cwt, (3) Let the ratio 
of the breadth and the depth be as 6 is to 
10, that is *6 d, which is a very suitable ratio 
for all purposes where stiffness is required. 
(4) Let c the constant = 4 cwt. Then, 
using the same formula as before, 

■ 1 • • i 2 c h d ' 2 
breaking weight = : 



420 =- 



x 4 x -§d x d 2 
10 



2 x 4 x ?3 



1080. 



420 x 10 

d° — ~ ~ A a = 8 ?5 

2 x 4 x "o 



FLOORS. 



85 



.-. d = ^/«75 = 9-5 nearly, 
and b = -U = -6 x 9-5 = 5-7 in. 

Therefore, a binder 9'5 in. x 5*7 in. would 
carry a floor weighing 1 cwt. per ft. super, 
over a span of 10 ft. The following rule is 
given by Tredgold : — 



D 



x 3-42. 



In this case, again, the breadth must 
assumed. Let this be taken as 5*5 in., 



be 



then 



»-y 



10 x 10 



x 3-42 



D'D 

.'• d— VI8 x 3-42 
.-. d = 2-7 x 3-42 
= 9-2 nearly, 

which corresponds very nearly with the 
first case. 

Determining Size of Girder for 
Supporting Floor. 

Girders 10 ft. apart from centre to centre 
carry a floor weighing 1J cwt. per ft. 
super. Required, the breadth and depth 
for strength ; span 20 ft. (1) The total load 
carried by the girder is 20 x 10 x T25 = 
250 cwt. — that is, the length multiplied by 
half the bay on either side multiplied by 
the load per ft. super. (2) Let B.W. = 7 
times the safe load = 250 x 7 = 1,750 cwt. 
(3) Let breadth be '6 d. (4) Let c the 
constant be 4 cwt. 



Then 



B.W. 



1750 



2 c b d 2 



2 x 4 x -6d x d' 2 
20 



1750 x 20 

.-. d s = ^ -. - = 7262-5 

2 x 4 x -6 

. ■. d = V7262-5 = 19 - 25 in. nearly, 

.-. b = -Qd = '6x 19-25 = 11-550 in. 

Therefore, the breadth and depth of a 
suitable girder for the required purpose must 
be 11*5 in. wide and 19"25 in. deep. It is 
needless to remark that a wooden girder 
20 in. deep is impracticable, and a wrought- 
iron girder would be substituted for it ; but 
as the above is merely an illustrative ex- 
ample, the construction of the girder need 



not be discussed 
girder is : 



Tredgold's rule for fir 



L ff x4-2. 

Let the breadth (which must be assumed) 
be 12 in. Then :— 



D: 



20 x 20 



12 " * " 

IT X 4 - 
= VW3 x 4-2 
= 3-2 x 4-2 
= 14 in, nearly. 

It is evident from this that a girder 20 in. 
deep is by far too large, or that a girder of 
14 in. is much too small. If the formulae 
in each case are examined it will be found 
that the first is based on the strength of a 
small beam determined by trial, while the 
second is doubtful. It is certain, however, 
that a girder, 12 in. by 14 in., and 20 ft. 
long, is not capable of carrying a load of 
250 cwt., as determined by the recognised 
formulae. It may be mentioned further 
that the loads are considered as distributed 
loads, while in reality they are loads placed 
at certain fixed points, namely, the points 
where the binders are connected to the 
girder ; consequently the dimensions ob- 
tained by the formulae are slightly less than 
they ought to be. 
Thus 



B.W. 



bd 2 



L 

2x4 



11-5 x 19-25 x 19-25 



!0 



= 1704-58 cwt. 



which is less than the actual breaking weight 
calculated for, namely, 1,750 cwt. ' The 
strongest floor, for the quantity of timber 
used, is given in the first case, while the 
apparent strength shown in the second and 
third cases results in actual weakness. But 
single floors should not be used for spans 
exceeding 16 ft. ; and though they are 
sometimes used for spans up to 24 ft., in 
such cases deflection is considerable, resulting 
in cracked ceilings, etc. It may, neverthe- 
less, be stated that each floor has its advan- 
tages and its disadvantages. The above 



86 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



calculations are not worked out exactly, 
the nearest fraction being taken in each 
case. 

Floor-Boards. 

Timber Used for Flooring. — Many varie- 
ties of wood are manufactured into flooring. 
For elaborate purposes wainscot oak, teak, 
etc., are employed ; but for less expensive 
work coniferous timber is used, of which 
there are several kinds. Pitchpine is the most 
elegant and durable ; other kinds are : 
Riga (red and white), Bjorneborg (red and 
white), Swedish and Norwegian white wood, 
and Quebec red. White deal is a timber 
that is seldom if ever kept under cover ; it 
is generally sawn and wrought direct from 
exposed stacks. Red deal — especially floor- 
ing battens and deals — is invariably kept 
under cover. Pitchpine is never imported 
in battens, but in logs, deals, and irregular 
sized scantlings, which can be with safety 
stacked, when pinned, in an exposed place. 
For flooring, etc., white deal is used to a far 
greater extent than red deal or pitchpine, 
on account of its cheapness and adaptability. 

List of Shippers' Marks on Floorings. — 
The following is a list of floorings with 
the shippers' marks, showing the quality 
and port : — 



'£- A + A ^ 


3rd. 


Iggesund 


BSSC 


1st. 


Sandarne 


BC 


2nd. 


•>■> 


BBB 


3rd. 


55 


B-Co. 


u s. 


55 


C + K 


2nd. 


Domigo 


D M 


3rd. 


Skutska 


DOM 


2nd. 


55 


E*E 


1st. 


Sundswall 


E E E 


2nd. 


55 


FAS 


3rd. 


Gothenburg 


GLINGE 


3rd. 


Fredrikstad 


N A S 


2nd. 


Gene 


K HB 


1st. 


55 


H AB 


2nd. 


5; 


H + B 


1st. 


Fredrikstad 


H + B + T 


3rd. 


55 



Shippers' Marks 
H^H 
HT AB 

JCK 

JD& Co. 

JF J 
IKH B g? 

K + K 

M ^H 

N + W 

N = W 

N W 

IPATI 

gP Pe 

S AF 

SAL 

S^B 

SB S 

SAB 

S®F 

S F A 

SFB 

s + w 

iSK Bife 

SKB 

SUND 

SViVIK 

S Y * VIK 

S DD 

W & Co. 

W D & Co. 

WIESE & Co. 

sb # sk 



on Floorings (continued) 
1st. Hudikswall 
3rd. 

1st. Domsjo 
2nd. Soderhamn 
u s. Fredrikstad 
Extra 1st. Gene 
3rd. Domsjo 
1st. Soderhamn 
1st. Sundswall 
2nd. 
3rd. 

1st. Hudikswall 
2nd. 

2nd. Gothenburg 
2nd. 

Extra 1st. Skonvik 
1st. 
2nd. 

1 st. Gothenburg 
1st. Fredrikshald 
2nd. 

3rd. „ 

Extra 1st. Skutska 
1st. 

1st. Sundswall 
1 st. Swartwik 
2nd. 
3rd. 

2nd. Fredrikshald 
1st. 

1st. Fredrikstad 
3rd. Gefle 
u/s 



Sizes of Floor-Boards. — The sizes of floor- 
ing generally taken from white deal are 
3 in. by J in., 3 in. by 1\ in., 3 in. by If in., 
5 J in. by f in., 6 in. by J in., 6 J in. by | in., 
5J in. by 1J in., 6 in. by 1J- in., 6J in. by \\ 
in., and 6 J in. by If in. These sizes do not 
include the tongue, or feather, consequently 
the stuff is J in. broader in the rough than 
when wrought. The most suitable battens 



FLOORS. 



87 



for flooring are 6 in. by 2 in., 6 in. by 2 J in., 
6} in. by 2 J in., 7 in. by 2 J in., and 7 in. by 
3 in. When 3-in. by f-in. flooring is being 
cut and wrought, the most suitable sized 
batten is 7 in. by 3 in., which gives six 
pieces, three saw cuts being sufficient — 




Fig. 365. — Ordinary Direction of Grain in Floor- 
Boards. 

namely, two deep and one flat. This is 
when wrought single with the flooring 
machine. When run double with the 
machine two saw cuts through the depth 
are sufficient. The flat cutting in this 
instance is done with the flooring machine. 
The double working of flooring and lining 
with machinery, though much the quicker 
way, is not so satisfactory as the single 
method, for each alternate board has to be 
reversed, besides the further disadvantage, 
if the battens are waney, of the groove being 
always on the waney edge. Similar sized 
flooring (J in.) can also be cut from 7-in. 
by 2J-in. battens. Two boards may be 
cut f- in. in thickness and one J in., thereby 
utilising the whole batten ; 5J in. by f-in. 
boards are taken from 6-in. by 2-in. material ; 
3-in. by lf-in. from 7-in. by 2f-in., 3-in. 
by lf-in. from 7-in. by 3-in. 

Operation of Floor-Board Planing Machine. 
— The fixed cutters or face irons of a floor- 
ing machine produce the best and smooth- 
est work. These tools operate on the under 
side of the boards ; therefore the freshly 
sawn side should be placed downwards to 
receive the finishing, which the face irons 
accomplish. The revolving top scutching- 
block is not so much used for dressing as 
for bringing the boards to an exact thick- 
ness. So long as one side of the board is 
well dressed and of accurate thickness, it is 
not important to have the other side so well 
done. Some machines have fixed planers 
on the upper side, but such cannot bring 
the stuff to an accurate thickness like the 
revolving scutch-block. It is heavy work 
for fixed cutters to reduce boards -— m - '■> 
the scutching-block, however, can easily 



take J in. off. With evenly sawn wood 
heavy cutting has seldom to be resorted to. 
The leading advantage of the scutching- 
block compared with fixed cutters is that 
the block makes an irregular surface parallel, 
whereas fixed cutters follow the uneven 
nature of the board, and do not alter any 
irregularity which it may have. There are 
many cutter heads for the formation of the 
tongue and groove. The face-iron side of 
the groove and tongue should project a little 
more than the scutched side ; by this means 
the faced side of the flooring, when driven 
home and placed in position, has a better 
joint than it otherwise would have. The 
" Shimer " patent heads make the finest 
work ; with a feed speed of 60 ft. or 80 ft. 
per minute undue chipping is very rare with 
the " Shimer " patent. A good machine 
can run from 9,000 to 11,000 sup. ft. of 6-in. 
or 6J-in. by If -in. flooring per day, or 4,000 
sup. ft. of narrow flooring. All lf-in. 
material is taken from 2|-in. battens, 
whether broad or narrow. Flooring above 
If in. thick is sometimes run with two 
grooves instead of one, .and slip feathers 
are employed in place of the solid formed 
tongue. This plan saves J in. on the 
breadth of each board. 

Stacking Floor-Boards. — Finished flooring, 
no matter how well it may be stacked and 
pinned, is always liable to become twisted 
whilst being seasoned. To obviate this, 
the material should be sawn, pinned, and 
stacked in the rough. Let it season for six 
or eight weeks ; then finish it with 
machinery. Work done in this way can 
be stored in bulk under cover without 
being pinned or ventilated. Flooring 




Fig. 366. 



-Direction of Grain for Least Shrinkage 
of Floor-Boards. 



wrought on this principle does not twist, 
cast, or shrink like material finished and 
stacked at one operation ; it is, moreover, 
much more easily laid. This rule applies 
also to lining. Red deal flooring is not so 
generally wrought for stock as white, for 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



the reason that red deal battens are, as a 
rule, kept under cover ; orders can be 
executed and despatched without the neces- 
sary seasoning that white deal requires. 



Laying Floor= Boards. 

Folded Floor.—" Floors to be laid fold- 
ing with the joints broken " means that 
the heading joints of the boards are not 




Figs. 367 and 368. — Laying 
Folded Floors. 



Fig. 369. — Cramping Floor-Boards with Dog and Folding Wedges. 



Red deal is more easily manufactured than 
white. It is to a certain degree softer and 
not so tough in the reed as spruce. 

Direction of Grain in Floor-Boards. — 
If a specification does not insist on any 
particular position of the grain of the wood, 
it will be complied with by either of the 
examples shown in Figs. 365 and 366. If 
the grain is intended to show " annual rings 
parallel with the edges," words to that 
effect should be inserted in the specification, 
or it should be stated that " all boards are 
to be cut radially from the tree." No doubt 
the plank shown in Fig. 366 would be less 
liable to warp than that shown in Fig. 365 ; 



to be in line when laid, but are to be crossed 
in as long lengths as possible from joist 
to joist. The system of laying the boards 
with a succession of joints in line causes 
une venn ess when the boards shrink, and 
weakens the floor. The term " laid fold- 
ing " is an old one, and was applied when 
mechanical means were not available for 
bringing the joints tightly together. In 
the absence of a floor cramp the boards 
may be laid with fairly tight joints by 
jumping them in, as shown in Fig. 367. 
The first board next the wall is laid and 
nailed in its place ; then other boards 
(say five), to make a width of about 3 ft., are 



rv^Mv^V^S 



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Fig. 



370. — Floor with Joints broken at 3-ft. 
Intervals. 



Fig. 371. — Ordinary Pattern Floor Cramp. 



but to obtain all like this would mean pick- 
ing over a very large parcel of boards in 
order to get the quantity required, and it 
may be looked upon as impracticable. 



laid down. The final position of the fifths 
board having been ascertained, the fifth 
board is nailed down J in. inside the line 
it takes when only hand tight. The four 
other boards are then jumped in and nailed. 



FLOORS. 



89 



A board placed over the loose boards, as 
seen in Fig. 368, will be found of assistance 
in getting the floor-boards down to the 
joists, but there will still be some difficulty 



2 in. thick is then laid next the board, 
and a pair of hardwood folding wedges 
is driven between the timber and the dog 
until the joints of the board are close ; 





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TO 






u$il 




B 


VOA> 





Fig. 372. — Improved Form of Floor Cramp. 

unless the four boards are kept loose — 
that is, none of the intermediate boards 
between the first and sixth must be nailed 
until all of them are tight home. Another 
simple method of cramping is shown in 




Another Improved Floor Cramp. 



Fig. 369. An iron timber dog (Fig. 47, 
p. 11) is driven into the top edge of the 
joist, allowing about 3 in. from the edge 
of the floor-board. A piece of rough timber 



Fig. 375. — Butt and Splayed 
Heading Joints. 

then the boards are nailed, the dog is re- 
moved, and more boards laid in the same 
manner. Both the methods above men- 
tioned are usually adopted for the com- 
moner kinds of work only. 

Laying Floor - Boards with Aid of 
Cramp. — Floors laid with the heading 
joints crossed, as in Fig. 370, need a special 
cramp to bring up the joints ; three kinds 
of cramps are shown by Figs. 371 to 373, 
but a variety is available. For instance, 
batten-width tongued and grooved common 
Baltic flooring would be laid in the follow- 
ing manner. The joists would be tried 
over and brought to a level. A batten, or 
line of battens, would be laid down next 
the wall to line true at the outer edge, 
and then be nailed to the joists. The re- 
maining rows are laid two or three at the 
time with the tongues inserted, then 
cramped into place, nailed, and the next 
lot of battens applied. If the battens are 
already tongued, they can be laid either 
way, as the block, or saving piece, between 
the cramp and batten can be grooved to 
clear the tongue. Figs. 371 and 372 show 
the modes of using floor cramps. When the 
floor has been finished so far that there is not 
sufficient room for the cramp, the remaining 



90 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



battens can be wedged in from the wall, 
or forced together by using a piece of quar- 
tering as a lever. 

Floor Brads. 

Nails used in flooring are called floor 
brads (Fig. 374), and they are driven through 



Fig. 376 — 

Straight Floor 

Joint. 




Fig. 377 — 

Rebated Floor 

Joint. 





Fig. 378.— 
Rebated and 
Filleted Joint. 



Fig. 379.— 
Rebated, Grooved 
and Tongued Joint 
for Secret Nailing. 





Fig. 380.— 

Iron Tongue 

Joint. 





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Fig. 381.— 

Dowelled Floor 

Joint. 



the floor-boards into the joists, two at each 
passing, about 1 in. from the edge. 

Joints for Floor= Boards. 

Heading Joints.— The points of contact 
between the ends of two floor-boards are 
called heading joints (Fig. 375). a (Fig. 375) 
shows the section of a butt heading joint, but 
slightly less simple than the splayed head- 
ing joint shown in section by b (Fig. 375). 
These joints should always be arranged to 



occur over a joist, and in floors laid with the 
aid of a cramp, contiguous boards should have 
their heading joints on different joists — 
that is, should break joint. The actual 
joint is made in different ways. In common 
floors the boards simply butt up against 
each other a (Fig. 375) ; in better work the 
heading joints are splayed b (Fig. 375). Even 
with plain headings it is usual slightly to 
undercut the ends so as to present as close 
a surface joint as possible. Sometimes the 
heading joints are grooved and tongued in 
a similar fashion to the longitudinal joints 
described below. In very expensive work 
the ends of the boards are cut into a series 
of sharp, salient and re-entering notches, 
whose ridges are parallel to the surface of 
the floor. These notches fit one another, 
and form a tight joint. Such joints are 
sometimes used in oak floors ; they are 
extremely troublesome and expensive to 
make, and the point nearest the surface of 
the floor is very liable to break away even 
in hard wood. 

Edge Joints. — The ordinary straight joint 
for the longitudinal edges of floor-boards 
is shown in section by Fig. 376 ; the rebated 
joint (Fig. 377) is another common method, 
a joint requiring more work being the re- 
bated and filleted (Fig. 378). The rebated, 
grooved, and tongued joint (Fig. 379) is 
useful for secret nailing. The joint shown 
in Fig. 380 has an iron tongue, and Fig. 381 
shows the dowelled joint. The ploughed 
and cross-tongued joint with slip feather 
(Fig. 260, p. 62) is also used. In all floors 
which are ceiled underneath, means should 
be taken to prevent dust or particles of any 
kind from falling between the boards. Any 
accumulation of organic matter on the upper 
surfaces of the plaster is certain to decom- 
pose. The ceiling being, moreover, always 
more or less porous, these particles gradu- 
ally work their way to the under surface, 
and produce a stained appearance, which no 
amount of whitewashing or scraping will 
remove. The usual method of preventing 
this is to form a ploughed and tongued 
floor. Each board is grooved on each edge, 
and thin slips, or tongues, either of wood or 
of galvanised iron, are then inserted (see 
Figs. 260 and 380). If of iron, the tongue 
should be galvanised. The tongue should 



FLOORS. 



91 



be fixed nearer to the lower edge of the 
board than to the upper, so that as much 
wear as possible can be had out of the floor 
before the tongue is exposed. Another 
method of attaining the same object is 
known as rebating and filleting (see Fig. 
378) ; a rebate is cut on the lower edge of 
each board, and a fillet of oak or some other 
hard wood fixed in the space thus formed. 
For superior work, a dowelled floor (Fig. 
381) has the advantage of showing no nails 
on the surface ; the boards are pinned to- 
gether between the joists with oak dowels, 
and nailed obliquely on one edge only. 
Dowelled boards should not be more than 
S in. wide, and not less than 1| in. thick 
when finished. The " Pavodilos " joint is 
as shown by Fig. 382, a slightly modified 
form being that shown by Fig. 383, which, 
although the second key is lost, may pos- 
sibly be preferred on account of the danger, 
when nailing down the flooring jointed as 
in Fig. 382, of damaging the feather-edge 
of the board that is being fixed. 

Double = boarded Floor. 

An upper layer of thin oak boards is some- 
times fixed over a rough deal floor for the 
sake of appearance, and also in some cases 
to obtain an almost impervious surface. 
A floor of this kind, wax-polished and well 
laid, is much to be commended for the ease 
with which it can be cleaned, and for its non- 
absorbent nature. 

Sound = proof Floors. 

One method of preventing the sound from 
one room being audible in another room 
immediately below is to nail fillets to the 
joists, and on these nail a layer of rough 
boards, and to fill in on the top of these 
boards a stratum of lime-and-hair mortar. 
Slag felt, a preparation of slag wool, which 
is a material produced by blowing off waste 
steam into the slag of iron furnaces, is also 
used for this purpose. In the case of the slag 
felt the process is as follows : On the under 
side of the joists, fillets are nailed to wooden 
blocks 1 in. thick, and to these fillets the 
lathing for the plaster ceiling is affixed. 
The slag wool (known as " pugging ") is then 
laid on the upper surface of the laths, and 
is felted by a patent process, this process of 



felting removing entirely the property which 
the slag wool possesses of emitting sul- 
phuretted hydrogen, and also reducing 
the weight of the material. Slag material, 
being fireproof, is to be preferred to sawdust 
and other combustible materials sometimes 




Fig. 382. 




Fig. 383. 

Figs. 382 and 383. — "Pavodilos" Joint in 
Flooring. 

used. Fig. 384 shows the section of part of 
a common floor, showing 9-in. by 3-in. joists, 
and lj-in. boarding with a rebated heading 
joint. In addition, " pugging " and a lath- 
and-plaster ceiling are shown. The object 
of the pugging is to reduce the transmission 
of sound. The fillets for supporting the pug- 
ging need not be of the shape indicated in 
Fig. 384. Another means of attaining the 
desired end is to nail strips of felt on the 
upper edges of the joists, under the floor- 
boards. By this means the connection 
between the joists and boarding is broken. 
This arrangement creates some difficulty in 
fixing the boards, which can be overcome by 
nailing a lath along the top of the felt. 




Fig. 384. — Section of Sound-proof Floor with 
Pugging. 

Fireproof Wooden Floors. 

Protected Wooden Floors. — One of the 

simplest and most economical methods of 
constructing a fire-resisting floor is to pro- 
tect an ordinary wooden floor with slabs 
of asbestic plaster or of slag wool (silicate 



92 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



cotton), both of which can be obtained 
commercially in slabs, as cloth, or in the 
form of loose fibre or wool. The loose wool 
is useful for filling up the spaces between 
the joists as a pugging to deaden sound (as 
already described), as well as affording pro- 
tection against fire. A convenient method 



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i 






■'•'■ ' . ' *•;.■ ' :'. *•: .' . 


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Fig. 385. — Asbestos Slabs under Wooden Floor. 

of attaching the slabs is shown in Fig. 385. 
The slabs are formed by enclosing silicate 
cotton between sheets of galvanised wire 
netting, and are made of thicknesses varying 
from 1 in. to 3 in. They are secured to 
the under side of the joists, as shown at a, 
by wooden fillets B b nailed underneath, the 
nails passing through the slabs. To these 
fillets are secured the laths, when a lath-and- 
plaster ceiling c is desired. Additional 
security can be obtained by placing other 
slabs between the joists, resting on tri- 
angular fillets as shown in Fig. 386. Owing 
to the comparative cheapness of these 
methods of construction, and the measure 
of security they afford, they are worthy of 
more general adoption in dwelling-houses 
and office buildings. 

Solid Wooded Floors. — Woodwork, when 
used in solid masses, is an excellent material 
for fireproof construction. It is extremely 
difficult to destroy timber in bulk by fire, 
and in America, partly on this account, and 
also on account of the cheapness of timber, 




Fig. 386. — Asbestos Slabs between Joists. 

floors and walls are constructed of planks 
nailed together side by side. The walls of 
many of the large grain elevators and station 
buildings are constructed in this way. The 
system of forming floors by close timbering 
instead of the ordinary use of joists and 
flooring boards, was introduced into England 



by Messrs. Evans and Swain between 1870 
and 1880. The joists, instead of being 
placed at some distance from each other, 
were laid close together, so that air could 
not penetrate between them, the planks 
being then spiked as shown in Fig. 387. As 
an alternative method, the spikes could be 
driven in diagonally, and, if thought neces- 
sary, the under side of the planks could 
be protected with a plaster ceiling keyed 
into grooves formed in the planks. As a 
test of the capability of this system, a build- 
ing was erected 14 ft. square inside of 14-in. 
brick walls, and measuring 7 ft. from the 
ground to the ceiling. The flooring was 
laid as described above, of deal battens 7 in. 
deep by 2 J in. thick, spiked together side by 
side. One-third of the under side was plas- 
tered, the joists being grooved for this 
purpose ; one-third was plastered on nails 
partly driven into the planks, and the 
remaining third was left unprotected. The 




Fig. 387.— Floors of Solid Wood. 

chamber underneath was packed almost full 
of timber, which was then lighted, and it 
was not until after five hours' continuous 
exposure to the flames that the unprotected 
portion of the floor gave way. The system 
was afterwards adopted in large warehouses 
for the East and West India Docks, London, 
and in other buildings. 

Other Systems. — A modification of the 
system just described has been patented by 
Messrs. Hinton and Day, and is illustrated 
in Fig. 388. The joists are spaced apart 
in the ordinary way, but the spaces are filled 
in with solid blocks, having the grain placed 
vertically, tongued and grooved together in 
such a manner that the passage of air be- 
tween them is prevented. The blocks are 
carried by fillets nailed to the sides of the 
joist. A test of this system of flooring was 
made at Westminster. Four walls of 9-in. 
brickwork were erected, and the under side 
of the floor to be tested was 9 ft. 6 in. from 
the ground. The lower part of the building 



FLOORS. 



93 



was filled three parts full with inflammable 
material (no petroleum or grease, however), 
and a fierce fire maintained for more than 
two hours, after which it was extinguished, 
and the under side of the floor was found to 
be charred to a depth of § in. In American 
factory and workshop buildings a layer of 
mortar d is often introduced between two 
thicknesses of flooring, as shown in Fig. 389. 
Here 8-in. by 4-in. wooden joists e support 
the flooring planks, which are 3 in. thick, 
on which a layer of mortar, § in. thick, is 
spread. Floor-boards 1J in. thick, laid on 
the top of this, form the working surface 
of the floor. Sometimes the floor-boards 
are laid in two thicknesses, crossing each 
other diagonally, as shown in Fig. 390, 
in which f indicates the layer of mortar. 
The beams carrying the floors have air spaces 
round each end, and to avoid the danger 
of the wall being pulled down by a falling 




Fig. 388. — Solid Blocking carried on Fillets. 

beam in case the latter should be burnt 
through, the upper end of the beam is cut 
away at both ends so that it can fall 
freely. 

Wood = Block Floors. 

Solid wood-block floors are now much 
used in the basements of dwelling-houses, 
on the ground floors of public buildings, and 
for covering certain forms of fireproof con- 
structions in the upper floors of warehouses, 
etc. The advantages they possess over the 
ordinary boarded floor are : damp-proofness, 
freedom from dry rot, greater lasting proper- 
ties, and freedom from vibration, and they 
do not transmit sound nor harbour vermin ; 
they are more sanitary, through the absence 
of shrinkage, and consequent open joints of 
the older system ; and the absence of nails 
is also a great advantage, as the holes made 
by these are always unsightly, and when 



the boards wear down the heads project, 
to the discomfort of the users. 

The Wood Blocks. — Wood blocks are 
generally made from 9 in. to 18 in. long by 
3 in. wide, and from 1J in. to 3 in. thick, of 
yellow deal, pitchpine, oak, birch, maple, 
or beech. They should be prepared from 
thoroughly seasoned and sound stuff. The 
firms who make a speciality of this work 
usually dry the blocks in hot-air chambers 
after working, and afterwards store them 
in a dry building. Precautions should there- 
fore be taken, when receiving a consign- 
ment from the factory, to store them under 
cover until they are required ; and it is wise 
not to order them until the place is ready, 
because their storage for any length of time 




Figs. 389 and 390. — American Systems of 
Wooden Floors. 

in a damp building will defeat the object of 
the previous drying, and for this the pur- 
chaser has to pay. The smaller sized blocks 
are sometimes made with square joints, and 
are held in place by the cement or mastic 
with which the foundation is covered, but 
in superior work the blocks are also con- 
nected by grooves and tongues or dowels. 
Several patented systems are on the market, 
some of the best of which are here illus- 
trated ; these combine an interlocking of 
the blocks with the substance of the bed, 
by means of dovetailed grooves or inserted 
keys, and a connection with each other by 
means of pins or tongues. 

Preparing Basement for Wood-Block Floor. 
— In preparing a basement to receive a 



94 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



wood-block floor, the ground should be taken 
out from 8 in. to 11 in. (according to the 
thickness of the blocks) below the intended 
floor-line ; the surface should be roughly 
levelled and rammed solid ; 1-ft. 6-in. stakes 
are then driven into the bottom about 6 ft. 
apart, and levelled off to 6 in. above the 
ground ; the site is then filled in with con- 
crete to the depth of the stakes, and the 
surface beaten smooth. A blue lias lime, 
or Portland cement, should be used for the 
concrete, in the proportion of 1 cement to 6 
aggregate. The concrete bed should be 
allowed to settle and dry before proceeding 
with the next step, which is the floating 
of the top with a j-in. layer of Portland 
cement and sand, 5 to 1 ; preparatory to 




Fig. 391. — Herringbone Pattern of Wood-Block 
Floor with 18-in. Blocks. 

this screeds of cement about 3 in. wide 
should be run around the margins, and 
across the room every 6 ft. or 8 ft. ; these 
should be accurately levelled and struck 
straight with a long float, and when set will 
become levelling points from which to 
strike off the surface of the cement ; before 
the latter has become hard it should be 
brushed over with a birch broom to score 
the surface ; it must then be allowed time 
to become perfectly dry, as any trace of 
moisture will be fatal to the adhesion of the 
bitumen coat next to be laid. From seven 
to fourteen days, according to the state of 
the atmosphere, will be required for this 
purpose ; and as an additional precaution 
just before laying the bitumen, or matrix, as 
it is termed, dust a little fresh lime or some 
fine dry ashes over the surface ; these must, 



however, be swept thoroughly off before 
running on the mastic. The bitumen is 
sometimes laid in two coats, the first being 
allowed to set before proceeding with the 
second ; the purpose of this is to ensure a 
substantial layer of bitumen between the 
blocks and the cement, but this is only 
necessary on very damp sites. The objects 
of the three different layers under the floor 
are : The concrete is to form a substantial 
and unyielding foundation, and also to 
prevent the ground-air arising ; the cement 
layer is to form a hard and regular surface 
to which the matrix can adhere ; and the 
matrix is a damp-proof layer that will effectu- 
ally prevent any moisture that may pass 
through the cement from reaching the 
blocks, and also, being strongly adhesive, 
it keeps the blocks attached to the cement. 
Various mixtures are used for matrices, the 
best having mineral bitumen as a base ; 
but frequently a simple mixture of Stock- 
holm tar and pitch, in the proportions of 
2 of tar to 1 of pitch, is used (note, gas tar 
is unsuitable). "When this is laid, in a single 
coat, screeds of wood about J in. or f in; 
thick are nailed lightly to the cement to form 
bays about 4 ft. or 5 ft. square ; two of these 
should be filled in with the melted matrix, 
which should be boiling hot, and the first 
filled in will be ready for laying the blocks 
by the time the second is filled. The best 
consistency of the matrix for laying is when 
it is thick enough to receive the weight of 
the block without allowing it to sink in, and 
yet warm enough to amalgamate properly 
with the mixture adhering to the blocks. 
Scaffold boards should be laid across the 
bays, resting on the screeds, for the men to 
kneel on whilst laying. 

Laying the Wood Blocks. — The mastic, as 
the fumes are suffocating, should be heated 
in a large iron cauldron in the open air, 
and brought into the building in iron pails. 
The blocks should be stacked in the room 
near the doorway, each cut to its proper 
size and each series stacked by itself. To 
do the work properly two men at least will 
be required to lay, working into each other's 
hands, and one to deliver the blocks as re- 
quired. The order of delivery and of laying 
will depend on the design, as will be men- 
tioned presently. The blocks are dipped to 



FLOORS. 



95 



half their depth into the pail of mixture, care 
being taken not to allow any to get on the 
surface, and lightly tapped into place ; 
when a bay is completed a piece of quartering 
about 5 ft. long, with one side planed straight, 
should be struck on the face of the blocks to 




Fig. 392. — Double Herringbone Design with 
12-in. Blocks. 

bring them to a uniform level. In laying 
the herringbone design (Fig. 391), begin with 
the margin, laying this as far as the mastic 
ruus ; then taking two blocks, place them 
in the left-hand angle, and make a mark on 
the margin where the edge of the second 
block reaches. This will be the point for 
fixing the small triangular piece, marked 
No. 1 ; next fix the block marked 2, and 
then Nos. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, in due order. This 
arrangement makes the insertion of the 
tongues or pins easy. Having reached No. 
7, either move to the right, or let the second 
man take up the running with block No. 8, 
whose position is found by measuring from 
No. 6 with two blocks as before ; then let 




Fig. 393. — Tile Design with 12-in. Blocks. 

him follow on with Nos. 9 to 14 consecu- 
tively, when the first man will lay Nos. 15 
and 16, and the second Nos. 17 and 18, and 
so on. The shaded portion in Fig. 391 
represents the recess between a chimney- 
breast and the wall. If a beginning were 
made against a straight wall all the three 



pairs of contiguous blocks should be laid first 
right along that side — that is, all of those 
having mitred ends, as these provide the 
starting points of the pattern, then follow 
on alternately left and right as described. 
A beginning should always be made at the 




Fig. 394. — Chequer Design with 9-in. Blocks. 

wall opposite the door, working towards the 
latter so that no traffic may pass over fresh- 
laid work ; and after all the blocks are 
down, sawdust should be freely strewn over 
their surface to absorb any mastic that may 
have dropped thereon, and scaffold boards 
laid on spare blocks from the doorway, 
should it be necessary to pass that way. 
At least twenty-four hours should elapse 
before beginning the cleaning off, to allow 
the mastic time to set hard, and in cleaning 
off plenty of tallow should be used. It will 
be found an advantage to the workmen to 
have a pail of whiting handy, whilst they 
are laying the blocks, into which they can 
occasionally dip their hands, as the tar 




Fig. 395. 



-Panel and Frame Design with Mixed 
Blocks. 



burns severely the unprotected skin. As 
before mentioned, the blocks should be 
all cut to size before beginning, and this 
necessitates the setting out of one " repeat " 
of the design full size upon a large board or 
a clean floor. The actual blocks should be 



96 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 






used for this purpose, fixing down the 
margins, and cutting and fitting in a bay 
as shown by the dotted line a (Fig. 391). 
Once the spread of a bay is known, it is easy 
to space out the quantity for a room and 




Fig. 396. — Section of Herringbone Patterns shown 
in Fig. 391. 

ascertain how many of each length and 
shape are required. It is best to lay down 
all recesses like the one shown, and cut in 
all the blocks, specially marking them. 
To obtain the size of the recess, lay down 
the margin blocks tight between the walls, 
or frame a rough template to the opening. 
The herringbone pattern must always be 
laid square — that is, cut ends must be a 
mitre of forty-five degrees. 

Designs of Wood-Block Floors. — Design 
Fig. 392 is laid similarly, beginning with the 
blocks No. 1 and following on with 2 and 
3, etc. Fig. 393 is an easy design to lay 
when once the corner is passed ; the numbers 
indicate the order of laying the blocks. Care 
must be taken to keep the sides of each tile 
in a straight line, and they should be tested 
occasionally with a straightedge. Fig. 394 
is an easy design to lay, and looks very well 
in pitchpine. Fig. 395 is more elaborate, 
but very effective in two coloured woods, the 
darker one for the frames and the lighter for 



h — af 



6— 




Fig. 397.— Turpin's Patent Block Floor. 

the panels. All of these designs are based 
on the right-angled triangle, and, given the 
size of the block, they can be readily set out 
to fit any room ; each pattern being a re- 
peat, one bay multiplied by the length and 



width of the room will show the quantity 
required. It may be mentioned that these 
blocks are usually sold by the hundred. 

Jointing and Fixing Wood Blocks. — Fig. 
396 shows the section of a wood-block base- 




Fig. 398.— Duffy's Patent Block Floor. 

ment floor with grooved and tongued joints. 
Fig. 397 represents a section of Turpin's 
patent interlocking system ; here a tapering 
tongue with an undercut shoulder on the 
lower side is stuck on the solid all round one 
block, and a corresponding groove in the 
other, and when the two come together they 
form a dovetail groove into which the mastic 
is pressed when laying, thus forming a solid 
key with the bed. Duffy's patent is shown 
in Fig. 398, and consists in the connection 
of the blocks by means of dowels ; these 
are supplied with the blocks and driven in 
as the blocks are laid. The holes are bored 
by machinery and are at exactly the same 




Fig. 399. — Geary's Patent Block Floor. 

distance apart, whether on the end or side, 
and therefore the blocks can be laid in 
several combinations. In Geary's patent 
(Fig. 399) each block is fixed to the mastic 
bv means of two metal keys driven into the 



FLOORS. 



97 



ends of the block ; these project from the 
bottom, and are buried in the bed material. 
The key is drawn to enlarged scale in Fig. 
400 ; it is easily knocked out when a block 
has to be cut, and is re-inserted in a small 
mortise. A half dovetail groove is also 
worked on the side of each piece, which 
forms an additional key to the block. In 
Fawcett's system, shown in plan at b (Fig. 
391, p. 94), and in isometric projection by 
Fig. 401, the ends of the blocks have a J-in. 
groove cut across them at an angle of forty- 
five degrees, and these, when the blocks are 
laid in herringbone pattern, lie in a continu- 
ous straight line. Into these grooves a 
f-in. by T Vm. steel tongue is inserted as 
shown in Fig. 401, the succeeding row of 
blocks fitting over and completing the 



larger portions of the patterns, the natural 
colours of the wood afford sufficient con- 
trast, but for bands in the borders, and for 
edgings for the geometric figures, more vivid 
colours are sometimes desirable, and these 
are obtained by dyeing some light-coloured 
wood, such as ash or sycamore, to the re- 
quired tint. The three forms of parquetry in 
ordinary use are known respectively as thin, 
medium, and solid. The two former, which 
are respectively out of J-in. and J-in. stuff, 
are glued to J-in. or f-in. deal backings in 
squares or panels from 10 in. to 18 in. 
square, and these panels are grooved and 
tongued all round, or sometimes dowelled, 
and are attached to the counter-floor either 
with screws, which are afterwards pelleted, 
or by gluing down. The former method is 




Fig. 400.— View of Metal Key. 

groove. This system is very effectual in 
preventing the rising of individual blocks, 
and is much used on fire-resisting concrete 
floors. The letter references in Figs. 391 to 
399 not mentioned in the text are : c 
groove, d mastic, e cement, f concrete, g 
ground. 

Parquet Floors. 

Parquetry is a method of covering a floor 
with hard and richly coloured woods, ar- 
ranged in various fanciful and geometric 
patterns, the effect of the design being 
brought out by the various colours, and by 
the direction of the grain in the component 
pieces, which are selected chiefly for their 
differences in this respect. Usually, for the 



Fig. 401. — Fawcett's Patent Block Floor. 

employed when it is intended to remove the 
parquet at some future time ; and the 
latter, when the parquet is to be permanent. 
The solid parquet is about 1 in. thick, and 
the various pieces are usually glued direct 
to the counter-floor and to each other in 
one operation, the design being formed as 
the work proceeds. In this method, all 
pieces more than 1J in. wide are dowelled, 
or, in a cheaper class of work, are nailed to 
each other with wire nails. Borders are 
fixed first, and, as far as possible, these are 
made wide enough to bring all small recesses 
and projections into line, so as to cause no 
interruption in the pattern ; but large 
openings must have the borders broken and 
returned around them. 



TIMBER PARTITIONS. 



Common Stud Partitions. 

This chapter will consist chiefly of illus- 
trations showing the construction of timber 
partitions; Such partitions are built in a 
variety of styles, the simplest being the 
common stud partition, which is supported 




Fig. 402. — Part Elevation of Common Stud Parti- 
tion supported from below. 



by a wall, as shown by Fig. 402. This is 
built with quartering, and is not braced 
or trussed in any way, but is stiffened by 
nogging pieces being notched into the edges 
of the studs and nailed as indicated. Fig. 
403 shows a somewhat similar form, but 
the nogging pieces and the brick nogging 
shown add to the stability. The partition 
can be finished with lath and plaster. 

Braced and Trussed Partitions. 

Fig. 404 illustrates a form of partition 
the sill of which rests on floor joists whilst 
the head serves as a middle bearing for the 
floor above. The joists under the sill are 
notched on a plate and supported by a 
4J-in. brick partition in which it is assumed 
there is at least one opening in the middle, 
on account of which the braces and king- 
post are introduced into the partition shown. 
When the sill overhangs the joist, as shown 
at a, it is housed into the post, and the latter 
is supported on a bearer fixed between the 
joists, as shown in Fig. 405. Another 
method is shown at b (Fig. 404), the post 
and sill being mortised and tenoned or dove- 
tailed together and supported by a bearer, 
which rests on fillets, nailed to the joists, 
as shown by Fig. 406. Sometimes the par- 
tition is framed and fixed with the sill run- 
ning through the openings, as indicated by 
the dotted lines at b (Fig. 404) ; just be- 
fore the floor is laid the sill is cut out be- 
tween the posts. A trussed partition is 
usually so built as to carry its own weight, 
and often that of one or more floors as well, 
and to distribute the weight to particular 
points of support, as will be made clear 
by the following examples. Fig. 407 shows 
a partition which has to carry its own weight 
over the greater part of the span and also 
that of the floor above ; the head of the parti- 
tion serves as a girder, the joists being 



TIMBER PARTITIONS. 



99 




Fig. 403. — Elevation of Brick-nogged Partition. 




Fig. 404. — Braced Partition Framed for Two Doorways 

LOFC. 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 




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ss# 



TIMBER PARTITIONS. 



101 




410. — Joint between Strut and Sill in 
Trussed Partition (see Fig. 407). 



notched or cogged to it. The ends of 
both head and sill are supported by stone 
corbels built in the walls. The sill has an 
intermediate support on a passage wall a. 
The foot of the king-post should be con- 
nected to the sill by a bolt or strap. Figs. 
408 to 410 show the form of the three prin- 
cipal j oints . The trussed partition illustrated 
by Fig. 411 is designed to answer the follow- 
ing requirements : A trussed _ " framed " 
partition between the front and the back 
room and the bnding of the same house, 
providing a door opening on to the landing 
7 ft. high by 3 ft. 4 in. wide, and opening 
for folding doors to back room, 9 ft. high 
by 9 ft. wide ; the storey is assumed to be 
11 ft. high clear of the joists. Particulars of 
the various joints are given in Figs. 412 to 
416. This being an example of carpentry that 
requires a fair amount of judgment to design 
properly, it will probably serve as an example 
for reference if it is fully worked out, because 




Fig. 411. — Trussed Cross Partition Frame with Two Openings and to support Upper Floor. 



102 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



this kind of partition frequently forms the Fig. 413, joints between partition head and 
support of floors, as shown in Fig. 411. It top of door post and strut (see b, Fig. 411). 
has-been assumed that the sill is supported Fig. 414, joints between door post, door 



1 




Fig 412.— Joint at A (Fig. 411). 




Fig. 415.— Joint at D (Fig. 411). 




rs M 

Fig. 413 — 

Joint at B 

(Fig. 411). 




Fig. 414.— Joint at C (Fig. 411) 



on a brick partition wall, except across the Fig. 416.— Joints at Foot of Strut and Door Post 

passage, where the sill is shown resting on ( Fi S- 411 )- 

a lintel. The enlarged details are explained 

as follows : Fig. 412, joints between door head, and strut (see c, Fig. 411). Fig. 415, 

post, door head, and brace (see a, Fig. 411). joint at d, Fig. 411. Fig. 416, joint between 



TIMBER PARTITIONS. 



103 




ba 

E 



104 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY 



sill, brace, and door post (see Fig. 411) ; 419). Fig. 421 shows the plan of the cross 
also showing sill notched to receive the joist, and staircase partition. The staircase par- 
Figs. 417 to 421 illustrate a practical example titions are 6 ft. from the flank wall, so that 
of partitioning to the upper storeys over a the upper staircases may be formed of two 
ground floor which is used for business flights. The cross partition (Fig. 418) has. 




Fig. 418.— Elevation of Cross Partitions. 



purposes. Sketch plans of the ground and 
second floors are given by Figs. 420 and 
421. In the ground plan (Fig. 420), a 
private entrance, 3 ft. wide, and the stair- 
case are enclosed by a 4J-in. brick and 
studded partition, which is indicated in 
section and elevation at a (Figs. 418 and 



a doorway b leading from the staircase 
landing, and an opening c is provided for 
folding doors. The head of this partition 
is prepared to act as the middle bearing for 
the second floor joists, and it serves also as 
a sill for the nmn members of the cross 
partition to the second floor, which in turn 



TIMBER PARTITIONS. 



105 



supports the third or garret floor joists as supported by them. One end of these par- 
shown. Fig. 419 shows the staircase, par- titions is carried by the back wall, and the 
titions to the first and second floors, having other is connected to the cross partitions 
door openings e and f. It must be noted by means of f-in. bolts, which are indicated 
that these partitions are not directly over at a, b, c, d, e, f, and g (Fig. 418). Owing 



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Fig. 419. — Elevation of Staircase Partitions. 



the ground floor partition A (Fig. 418), and 
therefore do not receive any direct support 
' from it. These partitions are designed to 
carry their own weight. The lower one 
supports one end of the first floor joists of 
the back room and landing, whereas only 
the landing of the second floor has to be 



to the sill m (Fig. 419) of the lower cross 
partition having to carry the ends of the 
joists, the strongest method doubtless would 
be to fix them to fillets as shown at I (Fig. 
419). The fillets would be spiked or bolted 
to the sill ; mortising and housing for tusk 
tenoning, etc., of the joists would greatly 



106 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 




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TIMBER PARTITIONS. 



107 




6X4ii 



F 




D 
D 




1 - 


a 


' \ 



Fig. 423.— Joints at A, B, C, D, E 
F, and G (Fig. 422). 




108 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



Fig. 424.— Joints at H, J, K, and L 

(Fig. 422). 




Fig. 425. — Trussed Partition framed for One Doorway and to support Two Floors. 



TIMBER PARTITIONS. 



109 



weaken the sill. The feet of the studs of 
the upper partition (Fig. 418) may run down 
and be fixed to the head o or to a thin sill 
n secured to the tops of the joists' as shown. 
In the conventional view (Fig. 417) the 
studs have been omitted, so that the main 
timbers of the framing may be clearly seen. 
The front second floor joists have also been 
omitted for a similar reason. 

Quarter Partition Through Two Storeys. — 
Fig. 422 is the elevation of a quarter partition 
18 ft. wide and 24 ft. high, running through 




are tapped at each end for nuts. Fig. 426 
shows a partition which supports similar 
loads, but having two openings. The sill of 
the partition has to answer as a girder also, 
and may have the joists connected to it by 
means of tusk tenoning, housing, etc/; 
formerly that was the general method, but, 
of course, the beam is thus greatly reduced 
in sectional area and strength. A much 
better way is to fix a fillet, either by nails or 
coach screws, to support the ends of the 
joists, as clearly shown in Fig. 427. 

it 



uj-ULxa 




Fig. 426. — Trussed Partition framed for Two Doorways and to act as Middle Bearing for 

Two Floors. 



two storeys and self-supporting over the 
ground floor. On the first floor is a central 
doorway 6 ft. 6 in. wide by 7 ft. 6 in. high ; 
on the second floor is a doorway 3 ft. wide 
and 6 ft. 6 in. high, 3 ft. 6 in. from one side 
wall ; and another 4 ft. wide and 6 ft. 6 in. 
high, 2 ft. from the other wall. Figs. 423 
and 424 give details of joints, and show the 
necessary ironwork, joints A to G in the lower 
storey being shown by Fig. 423, and joints 
h to l in the upper storey by Fig. 424. 
A partition with one opening and supporting 
two floors is shown by Fig. 425. It is 
strengthened by two f-in. iron rods, which 



Further Designs of Trussed Partitions. — 
Assume that a room 15 ft. wide and 11 ft. 
high is to be divided by a quarter partition 
having a central opening for a folding door 
7 ft. wide and 8 ft. high. A suitable trussed 
partition would be the one shown by Fig. 
428, in which all necessary scantlings are 
given, and the members named. When a 
timber partition in a storey 12 ft. high has 
a bearing of 21 ft., and has to carry itself 
and the floor above, the design may be as 
in Fig. 429, which shows provision for a 
door in the centre, and takes consideration 
of the fact that the binders of the floor above 



110 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



will rest on the top of the partition. All 
scantlings and names oi members are indi- 
cated. 



combustible material, the object being to 
prevent fire passing through the partition 
from one room to another. In a case where 



to 







Fig. 427.— View of Joint at Foot of Queen- 
Post, also showing Method of supporting 
Ends of Joists on Fillet fixed to Sill. 




Fireproof Partitions. 

Some bye -laws render it compulsory to 
fill in the spaces in a timber partition with 
brickwork, concrete, pugging, or other in- 



the studdings are of 3-in. stuff, bricks would 
be laid on edge. The partition can be 
covered in any suitable way — lath and 
plaster, wainscoting, etc. 



TIMBER PARTITIONS. 



Ill 



Sound=proof Partitions. 

Timber partitions are rendered more or 
less sound-proof by filling in with sawdust, 



substance because of the greater mass that 
has to be set in motion. For this reason 
clean dry earth, or, preferably, sand, is 
better than sawdust. But the weight of the 




Fig. 429. — Trussed Partition framed for Central Opening and to support Binders. 

which, however, does not answer the pur- sand needs to be taken into consideration 

pose so well as a heavier material. Sound in designing the floor supports. There is a 

or vibration — the same thing — is more number of patented systems available for 

readily damped or absorbed by a heavier building sound-proof partitions. 



TIMBER ROOFS. 



Roof Pitch. 

For the roofs of ordinary buildings, either 
30° or 26J° is adopted for the pitch, the 
former having a rise of half the length of 
rafter, and the latter having a rise of one- 
fourth the span, known also as square 



lap should also be increased. Where a 
2J-in. lap would do for a pitch of 60°, a 
4-in. lap would be desirable for a pitch of 
22|°. When the span and rise are given, 



rise 



the pitch (a) will be : (for example, 

span 




ARRIS FILLET 

out or 4."*Z 



Fig. 431.— Lean-to Roof for Shed. 



pitch. Sometimes, for large sheds with 
iron roof trusses, the pitch is reduced 
still more — to, say, a minimum of 22J°. 
For Gothic work and for exposed positions, 
high-pitched roofs are used, say 45° or 60°, 
and occasionally more, covered with shingles, 
slates, or plain tiles. The flatter the roof, 
the heavier the slates should be, and the 



24-ft. span 6-ft. rise = — 



24 



or (b) will be a slope of - 



span 
rise 



i pitch); 
to 1 (for 



i x 24 
example, in the given case 2 - — ; — = 2 to 



1) ; or (c) the pitch in degrees will be the 



112 



TIMBER ROOFS. 



IIS 




angle whose tangent is 



in the given [case 



rise 



J span 



(for example, 



24 



== *5), which 



the tangent of an angle of 26° 33'. To set 
off the slope of a roof, say, at one-third 
pitch draw the span a b (Fig. 430), divide 
it into three equal parts, and at the centre 



of the span c set up the perpendicular c d 
equal to one part ; join a d. Then a d will 
be the required pitch. This is the_nattest 
pitch at which tiles should "be laid. 

Lean=to Roofs. 

Lean-to roofs' in their simplest forms are 
used for covering sheds and for temporary 
purposes shown in section by Fig. 431.. 



114 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



They are also largely used for covering the 
back -and side additions to all kinds of 
buildings, the spans varying from a few- 
feet up to 20 ft. or more. Fig. 432 is a 
conventional view of an ordinary lean-to 
roof over a back addition. The head of the 
rafters may fit on to a plate fixed into the 
main wall, or the plate may be supported on 
iron corbels, as shown at a. When the 
span is more than 8 ft., a* purlin should be 




Fig. 433. — Section through Trussed Lean-to Roof for Span of 16 Feet. 



introduced. The span for these is unlimited 
within reason, but, as in other forms of 
roofs, the rafters should be supported by 
purlins at about every 7 ft. In the larger 
spans for important work, framed trusses 
irom 8 ft. to 10 ft. apart would be introduced. 
A section through a roof of this descrip- 
tion isTgiven at Fig. 433, which, it will be 




Fig. 434.— Section through Trussed Lean-to Roof for Large Span. 



TIMBER ROOFS. 



115 



seen, is a half king-post truss. The example 
shown at Fig. 431 is a form often adopted 
ior sheds attached to main buildings, where 
it is desirable to have a covered-in space 
with as little obstruction in the lower part 
.as possible. One end of each truss is sup- 



case is a proper application of the pole 
plate, which is so named because it has 
intermediate supports between the trusses. 
The conventional view (Fig. 136) will make 
clear the construction at the foot of the 
rafters. 



Fig. 435.— Foot of 
Post, showing it 



Fig. 436.— 

Conventional 

"View of Framing 

at the Foot of 

Truss Head of 

Post, etc. 




Fig. 437. — Self-supporting Shed Roof. 



^ported by a pier bonded to the main building, 
and the other by a head and posts which are 
"braced. The foot of each post is sometimes 
fixed into a stone or iron base (Fig. 435). This 
is to prevent damage by vehicles, etc., and 
to prevent decay. The common rafters 
•are supported by a wall plate a, by purlins, 
•and at their feet by a pole plate p. This 



Fig. 437 illustrates a case where it is 
desirable to roof over a space adjacent to 
a building, and to leave the front of the 
covered space clear, and at the same time 
not to fix the members of the roof to the 
wall of the buildings. The boarding is 
supported by small purlins, or, as they are 
sometimes called, horizontal rafters. For 



116 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



this roof to be entirely self-supported the 
post would have to be well bedded in the 
ground. 

Span, Couple=close, and Collar-beam 
Roofs. 

Next to the lean-to, the simplest form of 
roof construction is that known as the span 






But the more common method is to in 
troduce purlins, one on each side of the 
roof, so as to support the centre of the 
rafters. If the purlins are sufficiently 
strong and bedded in the gable walls at each 
end, and the rafters notched on to them, 
there is very little outward thrust on the 
walls at the feet of the rafters. A section 




Fig. 439.— Section through Span Roof with 
Collar Braces. 

or couple roof, consisting of two rafters 
fixed at the required pitch or inclination, and 
fastened at the feet to plates embedded on 
the tops of the walls, while their heads are 
either halved and pinned together, or nailed 
to a ridge-board. Such roofs are largely used 
for greenhouses' and similar purposes 7 (see 
Fig. 438). To remedy the obvious tendency 
of such a roof to spread at the foot and 
thrust out the walls, which tendency in- 
creases with the increase of span, various 
means are adopted. 

Where it is desirable to have as much 
space in the roof as possible, this spreading 
may be obviated to a great extent by fixing 
collar braces as shown at Fig. 439. 



Sig. r 440.— Half Section through Couple Roof 
with Purlins. 

through a little more than one half of a roof 
of this description is given at Fig. 440, a 
conventional view being shown by Fig/ 441. 
The number of purlins should be increased 
as the span is increased, so that the common 
rafters do not have a greater bearing than 
6 ft, to 8 ft, 



TIMBER, ROOFS. 



117 



adopted for roofing small houses, and is an 
enlargement of the previous case. Alterna- 
tive methods of fixing the purlins are shown, 
sides of the purlin are vertical 




Fig. 441. — Conventional View 

of Half a Couple Roof with 

Purlins. 




Fig. 442. — Section through Couple-Close Roof. 



The couple-close roof (Fig. 442) over a 
small building consists of rafters, which are 
bird's -mouthed and fixed to the wall plates ; 
ceiling joists are fixed to the wall plates 
and act as ties and counteract the out- 
ward thrust on the walls. The ceiling 
joists are usually supported at the centre 
by being nailed up to a beam which is 
tied to the ridge by pieces of board 5 ft. 
or 6 ft. apart (Fig. 443). 

A collar-beam is a horizontal beam or 
brace, generally of the same scantling as 
the rafters, placed from one-third to half-way 
up a span-roof and connected to the rafters 
at each side, the roof now becoming a collar- 
beam roof. 

Fig. 444 is a form of roof frequently 




Fig. 443. — View of Method of Tying Ceiling 
Joist to Ridge. 

and the rafters are notched on ; whereas 
at b the purlin is fixed with its sides at 
light angles with the pitch of the rafters, 



118 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



this being probably the stronger method. 
This roof is additionally strengthened by 
inserting a collar to every third or fourth 
rafter as shown by dotted lines. Fig. 
447 (p. 119) shows a common application 



+i,^ 



Fig. 450 shows the joint between the 
principal rafter and tie-beam, which are 
additionally secured by an iron strap, the 
ends of which are prepared for bolts and 
nuts securing a heel-plate a. It also shows 




Fig. 444. — Section through Span Roof for a Small House. 

of this kind of roof, largely adopted for a 4J-in. wall-plate b, on which the common 

dwellings, from the cottage to the villa rafters are bird's-mouthed. The rafters pro - 

class; the collars not only serving as ties ject beyond the wall, and bearers c are fixed 

to strengthen the roof, but also as ceiling to their ends, and also into the wall, so that 

joists. In this figure the collars are shown the soffit boarding and fascia board may be 

dovetail notched. Fig. 445 shows another fixed. A cast-iron gutter is shown fixed 

form of dovetail notching. Fig. 446 shows to the fascia board, and a tilting fillet d is 

a form of notching. When there is no also shown. 




Fig. 445. — Form of Dovetail Notching. 

ceiling a collar is usually fixed to every 
third pair of rafters. 

King=post Trusses. 

A king-post truss is suitable for any span 
up to 30 ft., and the sizes or scantlings of 
its members are shown in the table given 
on p. 121. A cross section of a little more 
than one-half of a 28-ft. span roof resting 
on stone template on 14-in. brick walls with 
9-in. piers is presented by Fig. 448, and 
part longitudinal section at Fig. 449. The 
common rafters measure 4 in. by 2 in. The 
eaves overhang and are finished with fascia 
and eaves boarding. Certain details of con- 
struction require to be shown separately 
on a larger scale. 




Fig. 446. — Notching Collar into Under Edge 
of Rafters. 

Fig. 451 shows the joint between principal 
rafter and strut ; purlin, cleat, and common 
rafter are also illustrated. The cleats are 
usually fixed with spikes or coach bolts. 

Fig. 452 shows the joints and three-way 
iron strap at the head of the king-post ; also 
the ridge and its junction with the common 
rafters. Fig. 453 is the joint at the foot 
of the king-post, with stirrup-iron, gib, and 
cotters. Fig. 454 is a vertical section- 
through this joint, showing straps, gibs, 
and cotters, clearance in mortise at c, and. 
clearance in strap at d. 

Fig. 455 shows the foot of a principal 
rafter and tie-beam connected with a wall 
having a cornice and parapet, with a gutter- 



TIMBER ROOFS. 



119 




CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 




V ^= 



TIMBER ROOFS. 



121 




Fig. 453. Fig. 454 

Fig. 453.— Detail at Foot of 
King-post. 

Fig. 454. — Section taken through 
Centre of Strap and jKing-post. 



Fig. 455. — Detail at Foot of Truss in Connection with Parapet. 



SCANTLINGS FOR TIMBER R00F5. 

The table below shows at a glance the respective scantlings for collar, king-post, and 

queen-post roofs. 







„ 








to 




■ao 










a 

ft 
55 




fl 


a to 
.a o 


fl 




Is 


a 
B 


a 
'as 


O H 

BS 


3 



-3 

2 




Ft. 


Ins. 


Ins. 


Ins. 


Ins. 


Ins. 


Ins. 


Ins. 


Ins. 


Ins. 


Ins. 


Ins. 


(' 


8 


















3x2 


2x2 


7 X 11 


Collar- | 
beam -j 
Roof, j 


10 
12 
14 
16 


















31x2 
3* x 21 
4x2 

4x2 


21 x 2 
3i x 2 
4i x 2 
5x2 


7 x 11 

1 xl| 
9xl| 
9 x H 


I 


18 


















4 x2| 


5|x2 


9 x 1| 


r 


18 


7x3 


4U3 


41x3 




31x2 




7x3 




34 x2 








20 


9x4 


4x4 


5x4 




4 x2i 
4 x2| 




7x4 




4x2 






King- | 


22 


9x4 


6x3 


6 x 3| 






8x4 




41 x2 






post ■{ 


24 


9^x4 


6 x3J 


6x4 




4i x2 




8x5 




H x2 






Roof. 


26 


9x5 


6x4 


6x4 




4 x3 




8k x 5 




4i x2i 








28 


10 x 5 


6x4 


6x6 




4| x3 




8|x5i 




4i x2i 






1 


30 


11 x 6 


6x5 


7x6 




6 x3 




8 x6 




41 x2| 






r 


30 


9x4 


5U4 




41 x 4 


4 x3 


7 x 4 


8x4 


4x4 


4x2 








32 


10 x 4 


6x4 




5x4 


4 x3-J 


7£ x 4 


8x4 


41 x 4 


4x2 






Queen- [ 
post ■{ 
Roof ' 


34 


10 x 5 


6|x4 




6x4 


4§ x3i 


8x4 


81 x 5 


5x4 


41 x 2 






36 
38 


10 x 6 
10 x 6 


6* x 5 
6~ x6 




7 x4 
7x5 


5 x3| 
5 x4~ 


8 x 4§ 

8 x 5~ 


8i x 5 
8| x5i 


5x4 

5 x 44 


H x2 
U x2 








40 


11 x 6 


7x6 




7x6 


6x4 


8i x 5 


8x6 


5 x4i 


41x2 








42 


lljx 6 


7x6 




8x4 


6x5 


8x6 


9x5 


6x4 


4| x 2 






I 


45 


12^x6 


7£ x 6 




8x6 


6x6 


8x6 


9x6 


6x4 


5 x 2 







122 




CARPENTRY AND JOINERY 




Fig. 456. — Elevation of Foot of Truss supported Fig. 457. — Part Longitudinal Elevation of Foot of 
by Iron Column. Truss, Pole Plate, etc., Boarding removed. 





Fig. 459.— Heel Strap 
and Bolt. 



Fig. 458. — Conventional View showing Joints at Foot of Truss, 
at Pole Plate, and Rafters. 



TIMBER ROOFS. 



123 




124 



CARPENTKY AND JOINERY. 






formed behind the latter. In this case 
the joint between the tie-beam and principal 
rafter is fastened by means of a bolt. 



of fastening for trusses where half-trusses 
have not to be attached to them ; but when 
this latter is the case, the stirrup - iron j 




Fig. 465. — Section through Main Truss showing 

Method of connecting Tie-beam, King-post, and 

Hips to Ridge. 

Figs. 456 to 459 show the end of a truss 
supported by an iron column. This case 
illustrates the use of the pole-plate and also 
the oblique bridle joint. The pole -plate 
serves two purposes, viz. to connect the 
ends of the trusses longitudinally and to 
support the rafters. The tie-beam and 
principal rafter are secured together by 
the strap shown at Fig. 459. Obviously 
this form of strap, having an adjustable 
plate at the top which can be forced close to 
the heel of the principal rafter, is rather a 
better kind than when simply in the form of 
a stirrup -iron. 

Hipped End of King - post Roof. — A 
conventional view of a portion of a king- 
post roof with hipped end is shown at 
Fig. 460. The method of constructing 
the truss and half -truss as shown at Fig. 
460 is illustrated by Figs. 461 to 467. 
Undoubtedly, for most cases, the stirrup - 
iron with gibs and cotters is the best form 




Fig. 466. — Part Elevation of Main Truss showing 

King-post and Section of Tie-beam of 

Half Truss. 

leads to rather a clumsy connection ; there- 
fore the bolt and nut method shown at Figs. 
461 and 462 is adopted for securing the tie- 
beam and king-post together. 




Fig. 



467. — Isometric View of Lower End of King- 
posts and Portion of Tie-beam. 



TIMBER ROOFS. 



125 



Fig. 463 shows part plan of trusses, 

J ridge, and hips. Fig. 464 shows the'meet- 

ing of the purlins, which are notched out 

I for the hip. When this is deep there is no 

| notching, the full ends of the purlins but- 

1 ting against it. Fig. 465 shows the tusk 

I tenon joint between the tie-beams, with 

|| necessary straps and bolts ; also the con- 

I nection of king-posts and straps and bolts 

|| at head and at c. Fig. 466 is part elevation 

of main truss. Fig. 467 shows the lower ends 

of king-posts and portions of tie-beam. 



Dragon Tie at Foot of Hip Rafter. 

A dragging tie, or dragon tie or beam 
(Figs. 468 and 469), is a framework at the 
lower end of a hip rafter, in the angle of the 
building, connecting it with the wall-plates 
in such a way as to resist the thrust of the 
hip rafter. The foot of the hip rafter is 
halved, notched, stepped, or tenoned into 



s.i 




Fig. 468. 

Figs. 468 and 469.— Plan and Sectional Elevation 

shewing Dragon Tie, Angle Tie, and Hip for 

Angle of Roof with Overhanging Eaves. 



126 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 




TIMBER ROOFS. 



127 




128 



CARPENTKY AND JOINERY. 






the dragging tie, which is notched at one 
end on to the wall-plates, at the angle 
where they are halved together, and at the 
other end is attached to the angle tie or 




Fig. 478.- 



-Conventional View of Joints at A 
(Fig. 473). 



brace by means of a tusk tenon secured by 
a pin or wedge, the angle tie being notched 
over the wall-plates to keep it in place. 
There is more than one method of construct- 
ing this joint. The dragon piece and angle 
tie should be used in all hipped roofs, al- 
though in small roofs it may be of a simpler 
construction, such as a batten nailed diagon- 
ally across the plates, the hip rafter notching 




Fig. 479. 



Fig. 480. 



Figs. 479 and 480.— Enlarged Details of 
Joints at A (Fig. 473). 



should be noted that in the plan the hip is 
not shown. 

Queen = post Trusses. 

The queen-post trusses are suitable for 
spans of 30 ft. and more. Suitable scant- 
lings or sizes for the different members are 




Fig. 481. — Conventional View of Stirrup-Iron, 
Gibs and Cotters at A (Fig. 473). 

shown in the table on p. 121. Fig. 473 
is the elevation of a queen-post truss for 
a clear span of 34 ft. Many of the details 
of this truss are the same as those of the 
king-post truss already fully illustrated. 
The principal differences are that in this 
case a horizontal straining beam has to be 
jointed to the queen -posts ; the joint is 
clearly shown by Figs. 474 to 476, the iron- 
work being illustrated separately by Fig. 
477. The joint and stirrup at the foot of 
the queen-post are illustrated by Figs. 478 
to 480. 




Fig. 482. 



Fig. 483. 



Figs. 482 and 483.— Enlarged Detail of Foot of 
Truss, B (Fig. 473). 



on to it. Fig. 470 is a conventional view Fig. 481 is a conventional view of the 

showing the parts separated. stirrup-iron, gibs, and cotters. 

Figs. 471 and 472 illustrate a case where The joint of the principal rafter at its 

the hip does not overhang the walls. It foot with the tie-beam is shown in elevation 



TIMBER ROOFS. 



129 



and section by Figs. 482 and 483, and con- 
ventionally by Fig. 484, the heel strap 
being shown by Fig. 485. 



and 491), where the purlins are shown 
mitred together and also notched out to 
receive the hip. This latter would also be 




Fig. 484. — Conventional View of Joint between 
Principal Rafter and Tie-beam. 

The joints between principal rafter, strut, 
and purlin are illustrated by Fig. 486. 

At Fig. 487 is shown the hipped end of a 
queen-post roof, and Figs. 488 and 489 show 
part sectional elevation and plan of same. 
The upper purlin at the end partly rests on 



Fig. 486. — Conventional View of Joints at Head 
of Strut, Cogging of Purlin, etc. 



Fig. 485. — Conventional 
View of Heel Strap and 
Plate for fastening Prin- 
cipal Rafter to Tie-beam. 




Fig. 487. 



-Conventional View showing'general Construction of Queen-post Roof Truss 
with Hipped End. 



I the straining beam. The upper ends of 

I the queen-posts are cut to receive the purlins, 

as shown by the conventional view (Figs. 490 



notched out part of its depth so as to fit in 
with the purlins in this case. 
The method of connecting the half-truss 



130 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 




Fig. 488.— Part Sectional Elevation on Line D D (Fig. 489) of Queen-post Truss with Hipped End. 




Fig. 489.— Part Plan of Queen-post Truss with Hipped End, showing Timbers— A, Main Truss, 
B, Half Truss, both being connected at C. 



TIMBER ROOFS. 



131 



to the main truss is shown by the part 
elevation and plan (Figs. 492 and 493) ; the 
construction will be more clearly understood 




Fig. 490. — General View showing Construction 
at Heads of Queen-posts. 

Fig. 491. — General View showing Construction at 

Feet of Queen-posts and Connection of 

Tie-beams. 

from Fig. 491, the tie-beam of the former 
being connected to that of the latter by a 




Fig. 494. — Forms of Joints at Head of Queen- 
posts. 

short stub-tenon, and both being further 
secured by iron straps and bolts. No doubt 
this method is preferable to the old-fashioned 



one of connecting the tie-beams by tusk 
mortise and tenon joints, and tightening up 
with keys. Other straps and connections 




Fig. 493. 



Fig. 492. — Enlarged Sectional Elevation at Head 

and Foot of Queen-post. 

Fig. 493.— Part Plan of Hip and Purlins. 

are clearly shown. At Fig. 494 suitable 
forms of joints are shown for the heads of 
the queen-posts, and at Fig. 495 a method 




Fig. 495. — Joints between Hips and Ridge. 

of fixing the hips to the ridge is illustrated. 
What is known as a king- and queen-post 
truss is shown by Fig. 496 ; this is suitable 
for a span of 50 ft. 



132 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



Other forms of joints at head of queen- 
posts, etc., are shown by Figs. 497 and 
498, the latter representing the better 



have only a two-way strap, as illustrated 

at Fig. 501. 

Securing Principal Rafter to Tie-beam. 



design, because the main Stresses are Two ways of securing the principal rafter 



Fig. 498. 



Fig. 497. 




Figs. 497 and 498. — 

Alternative Methods of 

forming Joints at Heads 

of Queen-posts. 



Fig. 496.— Half Elevation of King- and Queen-post Roof Truss for 50-Feet Span. 






bounded by the tie-beam, by the prin- 
cipal rafters up to the straining beam, and 
by the straining beam itself. The portion 
of the truss above the straining beam has 
only a very small stress upon it, and it is 
therefore unnecessary to make the upper 
ends of the principal rafters of such large 
scantling as the lower ends, which form 
an essential part of the truss. 

Figs. 499 and 500 illustrate a form of heel 
strap ; this having been fixed with a bolt and 
nut, a hardwood or metal wedge is driven 
in between it and the principal rafter as 



WETDCE. 



to the tie-beam are in occasional use. There 
may be a bolt as in Fig. 455, or a heel strap 
as in Fig. 499. The bolt and nut are better 




HEEL STRAP \^sd bolt it NUT 

Fig. 499. Fig. 500. 

Fig. 499. — Heel Strap connected to Tie-beam by 
Bolt, and tightened to Principal Rafter by Wedge. 

Fig. 500. — General View of Strap and Bolt. 

shown ; but this is not quite such a good 

form as that illustrated at Fig. 459, page 122. 

Occasionally the head of a king-post may 




si rap 



VH/V 

Fig. 501. — Two-way Strap for Head of King-post. 

than this form of heel strap, which cannot be 
properly tightened ; the bolt may be tight- 
ened, but it weakens the timbers a trifle by 
loss of sectional area, which, however, is not 
serious ; the stirrup weakens the timber 
least, and can be tightened up readily. 



TIMBER ROOFS. 



133 



Joint between Principal Rafter and 
Tie = beam. 

In designing the joint between the principal 
rafter and the tie-beam, the object should be 
to obtain the best form of resistance, it being 
noted that the principal rafter and the 
portion of the tie-beam beyond that rafter 
are in compression. If through faulty roof 
design it were possible for the principal 
rafters to sag, in the case of Fig. 502 the 




Fig. 



502. — Improper Way of forming Joint at 
Toe of Principal Rafter. 



rafter would ride on the heel A (Fig. 503), and 
the toe b would rise and split off the abut- 
ting piece c ; not admitting the possibility 
of sagging, even then the greatest thrust 
would be to the point, and there would still 
be the danger of shearing or splitting. In 
the case of Fig. 504 (where the abutting 
surface is at right angles to the back of the 




Fig. 503.— Result of forming Joint as at 
Fig. 502. 

principal rafter), sagging, were it possible, 
would cause the rafter to ride on the heel 
d (Fig. 505) and the toe to slide along r g, 
and there would be no tendency to split off 
the abutting piece h. Regarding the thrust 
of a perfectly rigid rafter, the abutment 
shown in Fig. 504 is better than that shown 
in Fig. 502. The compromise (Fig. 506), 
in which the angle is bisected, is the best form 
for a properly designed roof, there being 
an equal abutment of fibres. Bolts and 
plates or straps affect the shape of the joint. 
Cambering of Tie-beam. — The term " cam- 
bering," as applied to carpentry, means the 



binding of a beam so that its centre is raised 
above the ends, causing it to assume an 
arc or arch -like form, the object being to 
prevent sagging of the middle below the 




Fig. 



504. — Usual Form of Joint at Toe of 
Principal Rafter. 



straight line joining the ends when the 
beam is fully loaded. The following is a 
good example of the object to be obtained 
by cambering : When a king-post truss is 
being prepared, the king-post is made a 
little short, to the extent of about \ in. for 
every 10 ft. of span. Then, when the truss 




Fig. 505.— Opening of Joint caused by Sagging of 
Principal Rafter when made as at Fig. 504. 

is put together, the tie-beam is forced up to 
the shoulders of the king-post and held fast 
by means of a bolt or stirrup strap with gibs 
and cotters, already shown. The object is 
twofold. This bending of the tie-beam 
shortens it to a slight extent, thus bringing 
the feet of the principal rafters a little 




Fig. 506. 



-Best Angle for Toe of Principal 
Rafter. 



nearer together, and tightening up the joints 
of the truss so that each shall take its proper 
bearing, and also making each respective 
member take its share of the load without 



134 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 






sagging or distortion ; in short, making the 
truss rigid and firm. 

Mansard Roof Trusses. 

The Mansard form of roof takes its name 
from Francois Mansard, a French architect 
who was born in 1598 and died in 1666. It 
is essentially a roof with two pitches, and 
is usually employed as a means of economis- 
ing space. There are one or two regular 




desired height for the ceiling line, which 
is shown as 8 ft. From c d set off angles 
at 30 degrees meeting in g, which is the 
outline of upper portion of the roof. If 
it is desired to raise the height of the storey, 
as shown as 10 ft., the upper part of the 
roof becomes smaller, the main span remain- 
ing the same as does also the lower pitches. 
One of the usual ways of constructing a 
Mansard truss is illustrated by Fig. 509, 
which actually shows a queen-post truss 
surmounted by a king-post truss. Fig. 510 
is a conventional view of a Mansard roof, 



Fig. 507.— Belidor's Method of 
Setting Out Mansard Roof. 



Fig. 508. — Practical Method of 

determining Outline of Mansard 

Roof according to Height of 

Storey. 



methods of getting the two slopes. Fig. 507 
shows Belidor's system. On the line equal 
to the span describe a semicircle. Divide 
the circumference into five parts, numbering 
the points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, as shown. Join 
points 1 and 2 and 5 and 6. Divide the 
space between 3 and 4 equally, numbering 
the point 7 ; then join 2 to 7 and 7 to 5. 
The height of the storey is often the practical 
consideration, and therefore the above 
method is not always so applicable as that 
shown at Fig. 508. Set out the span and 
the outline for the lower part of the roof 
at an angle of 60 or 70 degrees (a and b) ; 
then draw the horizontal line c d at the 




showing the complete timbering. It illus- 
trates a case where the roof is designed 
to provide a room with as large a floor 
area as possible, this being often desirable 
for trade purposes. An enlarged detail of 
the foot of the main tie-beam, principal 
rafter and queen-post, with section through 
parapet, gutter and wall, is given at Figs. 
511 and 512. There should be a stanchion 
or similar support a (Fig. 510) in the event 
of the floor being laden above the ordinary. 
A dormer is provided, the timbers of which 
are connected with the rafters, etc., as 
shown. The ceiling joists are fixed to the 
top edge of the upper tie-beam ; the main 



TIMBER ROOFS. 



135 




Fig. 510.— General View showing Timbering of Mansard Roof, with Main Tie-beam acting as 

Floor Binder. 



136 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



tie-beam acts as a binder for the floor, 
the joists being supported by it. Two 
good methods of doing this are shown 
by Figs. 512 and 513 ; the joists at a are 
notched out to fit on the tie-beam, and 
their lower edges are further supported 
by a fillet fixed to the beam ; fillet and 




Fig. 511. 
Gutter, Fascia and Dental Brackets. 



Fig. 511. — Joint of Tie-beam and Principal Rafter, also Section 
through Parapet and Gutter. Fig. 512. — Joint at Foot of 
Queen-post and Tie-beam. Fig. 513.— Section through Tie- 
beam : A, Under Edge of Joint supported on Fillet ; B, Alter- 
native Method of Housing Lower Half of Joint into Tie-beam. 
Fig. 514. — Conventional View showing Tie-beam Housed to 
receive Joist (as at B, Fig. 513). Fig. 515.— Joints at Foot 
of Upper Truss with Section through Pole Plate, Wooden 
Fig. 516. — Elevation of Gutter, Fascia and Dental Brackets. 



TIMBER ROOFS. 



137 



beam may be finished off with ajnoulding as 
shown. At b the joists are notched on 
to the tie-beam and their lower halves 



tie-beam and principal rafter, also section 
through pole plate, wooden gutter, fascia 
and dental brackets ; an elevation of a 




Fig. 517. — Mansard Roof constructed without Trusses. 



housed in, as will be seen by reference to 
Fig. 514. The detail figures show general 
sizes, which, of course, would be increased or 
diminished according to the loading. Fig. 
515 shows the connection at the head of 
the principal rafter, queen-post, upper 



portion of the latter is given by Fig. 516. 
The head of the queen-post and upper tie- 
beam may be strapped together as indicated 
by the dotted lines in Fig. 515, or the 
arrangement as shown by Fig. 520 (p. 138) 
may be adopted. 



138 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



Mansard Roof without Trusses. — Of 
late years the custom has increased to 
dispense with trusses in roofs of moderate 
spans. The ends of the purlins 15 ft. 
to 35 ft. long can be carried on party or 
division walls, and the top storey is divided 
into rooms by partitions. Fig. 517 repre- 
sents such an example ; the floor joists are 
fixed to plates at each end, and rest at 




4X2 



Fig. 518. — Detail of Junction at Lower and 
Upper Rafters. 

their centres on the partition wall below, thus 
acting as ties to the back and front walls. A 
plate which receives the lower ends of 
the rafters is fixed to the top edges of the 
joists. The top ends of these rafters are 




rig. 



519. — Weak Method of Construction at Head 
of Queen-post in Mansard Roof. 



fixed to a plate, upon which the ends of the 
upper rafters and the ends of the ceiling 
joists are fixed, the latter tying in the 
plates and thus preventing any forcing-out 
action of the rafters. The heads of the 
studs are also fixed into this plate, the lower 
ends of the studs being connected to a sill 



fixed to the joists. The upper rafters 
have a central bearing on purlins, and 
the ceiling joists are connected to a binding 
piece which is tied to the purlins as shown, 
the joists also being fixed to the partition 
head. Although there is no truss, clearly 
the whole is triangulated and supported to 
form a substantial roof. 

Principles in Designing a Mansard Truss. 
— In considering the stresses borne by the 
members of a Mansard truss, it might 
be thought that the queen - posts are 
nothing more than mere vertical posts 




Fig. 520. — Construction at the Head of Lower 
and Upper Truss. 

carrying a king-post truss, whereas the 
object of a king- or queen-post is to support 
the tie-beam and prevent it from sagging, 
thereby sustaining tensional stress. Actually, 
however, no compression whatever is thrown 
on the queen-posts, however they may be 
placed, as the lower principal rafter takes 
all the thrust from the load above, whether 
that load be a lead flat, an ordinary purlin 
roof, or the king-post truss of a Mansard 
roof ; and as a matter of fact, in many 
Mansard roofs of small span the queen-posts 
are omitted altogether, as they are only 
necessary when the lower tie-beam has to 
be supported near its middle for the pur- 
pose of carrying a floor, etc. Queen-posts 
are omitted, for instance, when the purlin 
or plate which takes the top ends of the 
lower common rafters and the bottom ends 



TIMBER ROOFS. 







|]i 


l 1 




l 


I 


jJL- 






5-5* £ 

12 « ° 

*1 - 

® "S 

a) <u 2 

® i -S -J 

i £ <B <D 

|.§°§ 

+3 re 

,fH 

1 P rt ffi 

j. fcuo fen to 

o W W %> 

"S '3 .S 

-a £ § 3 



140 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



of the upper rafters is supported by main 
walls, intermediate walls, or partitions not 
more than about 15 ft. apart, this arrange- 



DETA1L AT A 



the whole of the load carried by the upper 
truss would have to be supported by the cleat 
spiked to the queen-post and the stub tenon 
on the end of the upper tie-beam (Fig. 519), 
a most inefficient support ; the effect or 
stress of the load would, of course, be with- 
stood by the strut or principal rafter so 
long as the connections held good, as the 
head of the queen-post merely forms a con- 
venient abutment for connecting the two 
trusses. The designer of the truss shown 




■ 



4-0' o M 



rnent rendering the construction - of the 
lower truss unnecessary. They, however, 
are an advantage constructively in another 
way, as they afford a means of triangulating 
the enclosed figure, and thus rendering the 
truss immovable by wind pressure. Lest 
any student should be tempted to copy a 
form of truss (Fig. 519) which has been 
proposed as an improvement on the ordinary 
Mansard truss, it may be pointed out that 



526.— Outline of Roof Truss 
for 40-ft. Span. 



by Fig. 519 proceeded on the false assump- 
tion that the queen-posts of the ordinary 
Mansard were in compression, and his system 
was an attempt to avoid this. However, in 
an ordinary Mansard truss, the head of 
the queen-post is, of course, a direct sup- 
port to the king-post truss, and therefore 
carries the weight of that truss and roofing, 
and thus, from the head of the queen-post 
to the bottom of the joint (see a, Fig. 520), 



TIMBER ROOFS. 



141 




IP 

ID 


□ 1 


rn 


n ii— ~* i 


Oia 1 


! IH 



-J 



w o 

boa 
o a> 






.3 to 

PI 

Ph 




142 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



where it is connected with the lower prin- 
cipal rafter, is in compression — but only 
this portion. The compressional stress is 
then transmitted to the lower principal 
rafter, the remainder of the queen-post 



short ; then the tie-beam is forced to the 
shoulders of the queen-posts, and secured by 
straps or bolts, and this clearly produces 
tension in the queen-posts from their con- 
nection with the tie-beam to the shoulders 
of the principal rafter (a, Fig. 520). It is 
also to be noticed that the connection 
between the queen-post and tie-beam pre- 
vents an inward turning action which would 




Fig. 532. — General Outside View of Apse End of Collar Beam Truss Roof. 



being in tension ; this may be curious, 
but is nevertheless a fact. The object of 
the tie-beam is to extend from wall to 
wall, taking the ends of the principal rafters, 
and thus preventing the outward thrust of 
the principal rafters on the walls, which 
would occur if a tie-beam were not used. 
Then, to prevent the tie-beam sagging, the 
queen-posts run down to it and support it. 
When these trusses are properly made, 
it is usual to have the queen-posts a little 



otherwise take place (as indicated by the 
arrow in Fig. 520) about the top of the 
queen-post (b, Fig. 520), by the inward 
thrust on it by the lower principal rafter. 
This quite refutes any statement that the 
queen-posts, instead of supporting the tie- 
beam, add their load to it. 

Mansard Roof over a Room with an 
Arched Ceiling. — Figs. 521 to 525 show a 
Mansard roof designed for a span of 34 ft., 
the room having an arched or coved ceiling 






TIMBER ROOFS. 



143 



which is intersected by circular-headed 
openings for windows. The figures show 
the construction very fully, and the chief 
dimensions are figured. The ribs for the 
curved ceiling are cut to shape out of 
6 in. by 2 in. stuff, and are notched to 
fillets fixed on the sides of the purlins 
as shown at b (Fig. 521). A rib built up 
of two thicknesses out of 11 in. by 1 in. 
is fixed on each side of the truss as shown 
at a (Figs. 521 and 522) to take the laths 



50-ft. span, allowing of a large well-lighted 
room being formed within it, 34 ft. wide and 
24 ft. high from the floor to the ceiling. 
The ceiling is level with the top edge of the 
collar c. The main tie-beam is supported 
by two corridor walls, one of which is indi- 
cated at d, some of the leading dimensions 
being given. 

Collar Beam Roof. — A collar beam roof 
over a small church or similar building 
with a circular apse end is illustrated by 




Fig. 533. — Part Plan of Apse End of Collar Beam Truss Roof 



and plaster, so that in the finished ceiling 
a panelled and moulded rib would be formed. 
The construction of the circular-headed 
window opening in connection with the 
main ceiling is clearly shown in the illus- 
trations. 

Open Timber Roofs. 

The open timber roof shown by Figs. 
526 and 527 is suitable for covering a 
room 40 ft. wide. Figs. 528 to 531 illustrate 
a good example of construction for a roof 



Figs. 532 to 538. The circular end has 
two half trusses framed and fastened to 
the main truss ; the king-post is common 
to the three, being cut to the form shown 
at f (Fig. 537) to receive the heads of the 
principal rafters. Only each alternate 
common rafter is carried up to the vertex. 
The main collar beam and the two half 
beams are mortised and tenoned together 
as shown at g (Fig. 537), and further 
secured by a strong three-way strap bolted 
to the top surfaces (Fig. 538). The curved 



144 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



purlins would be made out of two thick- 
nesses with joints breaking. The leading 
dimensions will be found clearly stated in 
the figures. 

Hammer Beam Roofs. — Figs. 539 to 
554 fully illustrate the roofing to a church. 
The roof to the nave is supported by 
beam trusses of simple construction. The 
dimensions of the main members are as 
follow : — Principal rafters, hammer beam, 
purlins and collar, 10 in. by 7 in. ; ribs out 
of stuff 4 in. thick. A hammer beam 
truss of a good ornamental design is shown 



securely lashed to the principal to prevent 
its being strained during the operation of 
hoisting. Treble-sheave blocks will be ample 
for the purpose, seeing that each rope will 



Pig. 534. — Longitudinal Section 

through Apse End of Collar 

Beam Truss Roof. 




by Fig. 555. Details of construction are 
illustrated by Figs. 556 to 560. 

Raising Roof Principal. 

For raising into position a hammer beam 
principal weighing about 1 ton, two up- 
right poles may be used ; and a horizontal 
pole, as indicated in Fig. 561, should be 



have to lift only about half a ton ; if double - 
sheave blocks are used, the time occupied 
in hoisting will be lessened, but more than 
one man must pull at each rope. A 3J-in. 
good quality hemp rope will lift 11 cwt. 
easily with an ample margin of safety. A 
method recommended by an experienced 
carpenter for raising into position a hammer- 




11! 

2 
iO 



t"35 

X UJO 
1-Q h- 



1 N PI 

/ (I J II iJ?" hBH ^H ' If i 

llfiiBl 




TIMBER ROOFS. 



145 



beam truss of 50-ft. span is as follows : — 
A derrick is erected and held in nearly an 
upright position by guy ropes. A block and 
tackle are secured to the top of the derrick, 
at the lower end of which a single block is 



required by men working the crab; To 
prevent the truss swaying and doing damage 
during ascent, it is guided by workmen 
holding ropes tied to it. The truss is next 
placed as nearly as possible in its position, 
then plumbed, adjusted, and stayed tem- 
porarily with pieces of timber attached to 
the plate, or other convenient fixing, until 



Fig. 535.— Part Cross Section 

and Part Elevation of Main 

Truss. 




fixed. The other end of the tackle is con- 
nected to the truss, and the free end of the 
| cord passes through the top block and down 
through the single pulley fixed at the lower 
end of the derrick, from which the cord is 
continued and connected to a crab. The 
truss is now gradually raised to the height 

7 



it can be connected to others by purlins, 
ridge, etc. At the present time derrick 
cranes are frequently used for hoisting, in 
which cases the trusses would be raised, 
guided, and placed in position more speedily 
than by the method above described of 
using a block and tackle. 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 




H 



Fig. 536.-A, Joint between King-post and Head of Principal Rafter. B, Joint between Front of Upper 
Rib and Collar Beam C Joint between Collar Beam and Principal Rafter and Iron Strap. D Joint 
X \K??r& Rafter. E, Jointing of Lower Ribs, F, J^^^t^ T^'sT-Zntl 
receive Principal Rafters to Upper End of King-post to Mam and Half Trusses. Fig. 537.-Jomts 
at Bottom End of King-post and Half Collars with Collar to Mam Truss (G). 



TIMBER ROOFS. 




148 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 




TIMBER ROOFS. 



149 



Composite Roof Trusses. 

A composite roof truss usually has wooden 
rafters and tie-beam and iron bolts with 
wooden struts. Sometimes it has an iron 
bent tie-rod instead of a tie-beam. The 



rod replaces the tie-beam, the construction 
is as shown in Figs. 564 to 568. A king-bolt 
truss with struts (Fig. 569) is suitable for a 
span of from 20 ft. to 30 ft. A queen-bolt 
truss JFigs. 570 to 572) is adapted for any 




Fig. 556. 



Fig. 559. 



Fig. 560. 

Tig. 555. — Ornamental Design for Hammer-Beam Truss. Fig. 556. — Section of Hammer-Beam Truss 
through A A. Fig. 557. — Plan of Pendant. Fig. 558. — Section through Pendant. Fig. 559. — 
Detail of Joint at C (Fig. 555). Fig. 560.— Detail of Joint at D (Fig. 555). 



simplest type is the king-bolt truss (Figs. 
562 and 563), a simple span roof with tie- 
beam and king-bolt ; this is suitable for a 
span between 15 ft. and 20 ft. When a tie- 



span between 30 ft. and 40 ft., as is also 
the king- and queen-bolt truss shown by 
Figs. 573 and 574. When a composite 
roof having an iron tie-rod is strutted, the 



(For illustrations see previous yage.) 

Fig. 545. — Transverse Section showing Inside of Circular End Roof over Apse. Fig. 546. — Plan of 
Timbers to Circular End over Apse. Fig. 547. — Joint at Foot of Bracket at A (Fig. 545). 
Fig. 548. — Joints at End of Hammer Beam, B (Fig. 545). Fig. 549. — Joints between Principal 

Rafter, Hammer Beam and Wall Piece. Fig. 550. — Joints between Purlins and Principal Rafters. 
Fig. 551. — Plan of Part of Curved Purlin indicating Method of Building Up. Fig. 552. — Conven- 
tional View of Curved Purlin showing Method of Construction. Fig. 553. — Halving at Heads of 
Principal Rafters. Fig. 554. — Joint between Collars and Principal Rafters. 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY 






c 
tr- 
io 


S. 562 
66 and 
ith Sti 




^ 


bCO F 










s; 


ho2 






c £ 




•s 








03 43 












£ «•? 






of Raising Roof T 

1 at Head of Trus 

Fig. 569. — King- 


fan 




bhod 

-Detai 

Shoe. 


Pm 




561.— Me 
Fig. 565- 
Cast-iron 



TIMBER ROOFS. 




in 

till! .£ 

I Cm 




I' 



152 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 




Fig. 585. — Section through Roof Trussed for 
Lead Flat. 

Fig. 586. — Detail of Junction at A (Fig. 585). 

Fig. 587.— Section through B B (Fig. 586). 

Fig. 588. — Detail' of Foot of Principal Rafter at 
C (Fig. 585). 




Fig. 588. 



TIMBER ROOFS. 



153 



connections are designed as in Figs. 576 to 

584. 

Composite Truss for Flat Roof. 

For the span of 47 ft. between pier walls 
shown in Fig. 585, the " Howe " form of truss 
illustrated is quite as suitable as the queen- 
post truss sometimes adopted. It is pro- 
portioned to carry a 6-lb. lead flat, with 
side slopes battened and tiled, as well as a 
plaster ceiling supported on 2-in. by 6-in. 
ceiling joists, suspended from the lower 
chord or tie-beam, which, without over- 
stressing the truss proper, can be of an en- 
riched class of decoration, suitable for a 




Fig. 589.— Detail at D (Fig. 585). 

public hall or concert room. Allowance 
has been made for a snow-load of 5 lb. per 
square foot, and for a wind pressure of 26 lb. 
per square foot on the side slopes. Fig. 585 
is a half- elevation ; Fig. 586, a detail at A 
(Fig. 585) at the top of the principal rafter ; 
Fig. 587, a section on the line b b (Fig. 586) ; 
Fig. 588, a detail at o (Fig. 585) at the 
junction of principal rafter and tie-beam ; 
Fig. 589, a detail at d (Fig. 585) at foot of 
brace ; and Fig. 590, a section on the line 
e e (Fig. 589). The details are as follow : 
Width between pier walls, 47 ft. ; extreme 
length of lower chord (tie-beam), 50 ft. 1 in. ; 
between external points of principal rafters, 
48 ft. 4 in., which is divided into six panels 
8 ft. wide and 8 ft. high on the centre lines ; 
hence all braces are inclined at 45°, approxi- 
mately, and the tie-rods are vertical. The 



trusses are spaced 10 ft. apart, and the 
camber is j in. for every 10 ft. between the 
wall and the centre rod. This will represent, 
roughly, a lj-in. rise at the centre, which 
can be obtained by springing the lower chord 
and marking shoulder lines on the braces 
when framing. The material may be Memel 
fir or pitch-pine. The stuff is framed up 
from the saw to 8 in. by 8 in. for principal 
rafters, top chord, and second panel braces, 
with 8 -in. by 6-in. middle braces, and 
8 -in. by 8J-in. or 9 -in. lower chord or tie- 
beam. The round iron tie-rods have 
diameters as follow : Outside rod, If in. ; 
second rod, 1| in. ; and centre rod, 1 in. The 
rods are threaded at both ends for hexagon 
or square nuts, with 2|-in. by J-in. plates, 
7 in. long, to each nut, the lower plates being 
let into the under side of the tie-beam, as 
shown at Fig. 589. The braces are bolted 
to the chords with f-in. bolts. The feet 
of the principal rafters are further secured 




Fig. 590.— Section through E E (Fig. 589). 

with double bolt-ended straps, forged out 
of 2J-in. by J-in. flat plate-iron, with top 
plates (of the same dimensions) drilled 
to receive the f-in. bolt ends. At the 
head of the principal rafters, an angle 
plate of f-in. iron, 4 in. wide, is drilled for 
f-in. bolts and nuts, an auxiliary angle plate 
being placed at right angles, to line with 
the purlins, and bolted up with the corner 
plate mentioned above. This plate is 
bolted to the under side of the purlins with 
two J-in. bolts, each 10 in. long. The pur- 
lins are notched J in. on to the top chord. 
In the half-elevation (Fig. 585), the outer 
purlin is shown partly removed, in order that 
the angle plate on the truss may be seen. 
Details of the lead flat, the tiled slope, and 
the plaster ceiling are clearly shown in the 
illustrations. A gutter is provided to drain 



154 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



the lead flat, with down pipes leading to 
cesspools at the lowest levels of the bottom 
gutters. The lead apron is copper-nailed 
under the lap of the roof-sheeting. This 
board may be rounded on the edge and re- 
bated out to the thickness of the lead apron ; 
or, alternatively, a thinner outside board 
may be used. A fascia board (1J in.) is 
nailed to the end of the rafters to serve as 
backing when dressing the lead apron, which 



Belfast, Irish, or Bowstring Truss. 

The Belfast, Irish, or bowstring roof (Fig. 
591) is a cheap form of construction exten- 
sively used for large spans. The truss con- 
sists of the sole-piece a, made double, as 
shown, of two pieces of 9-in. by lj-in. 
pitch-pine ; the bows b, also double, are of 
3-in. by lj-in. pitch-pine, bent to the curve, 
and struts or lattices c, of 3-in. by J-in. 
spruce, passing between the sole-pieces and 




f 




T 




1 




F 



Fig. 591. — Section through Belfast Roof. 





Fig. 592.— 
l Section 

through 
M AB 

(Fig. 591). 



Fig. 593.— Enlarged Detail of Foot at G 
(Fig. 591). 



Fig. 594. — Enlarged Detail of Ventilator of 
Belfast Roof. 



comes down on the tiles a sufficient distance 
to cover the joints at the lap. The side 
rafters, 2J in. by 5 in., are bird's-mouthed 
on to the pole plate, which is secured to the 
tie-beam with four coach screws (each 9 in. 
long), and has a bearing on the brickwork 
of the main wall. The scale of Fig. 585 
is T 3 (r in. to 1 ft., and the other illustrations 
(Figs. 586 to 590) are reproduced to a scale 
of J in. to 1 ft. 



bows, and clipping the purlins. They are 
usually put together with wire nails, one- 
half being laid out and nailed together, and 
the other half of bows and tie-beam or sole- 
piece put on top and nailed together. Rough 
timber is generally used. The purlins d, 
at 2 -ft. centres, are usually double, about 
3 J in. by 1J in., and are covered with f-in. 
rebated or tongued and grooved boarding 
E, and roofing felt well lapped at the joints, 



TIMBER ROOFS. 



155 





156 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 




TIMBER ROOFS. 




158 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



well coated with varnish, and sanded. The 
trusses are most usually made by the local 
felt manufacturers, of which there are 
several large firms in Belfast. The trusses 




Fig. 606. — Cross Section showing Elevation of 
Half Truss. Fig. 607.— Part Longitudinal 
Section of Truss through C C. Fig. 608.— 
Head of King-post and Collar (D and E, Fig. 
607). Fig. 609.— Conventional View at F. 
Fig. 610.— Conventional View at G. Fig. 611. 
— Conventional View at H. 



are used for spans up to 70 ft., spaced at 
6-ft. to 9-ft. centres ; that shown by Fig. 

591 is suitable for a span of from 30 ft. to 
40 ft., with a rise of ^ of span, the sole- 
piece to camber 4 in. The sole-piece should 
be cambered not less than 1 in. to 10 ft. Fig. 

592 is a vertical section on the dotted line in 



TIMBER ROOFS. 



159 



Fig. 591, showing the beaded cover board r 
underneath the sole-piece. Fig. 593 is an 
enlarged detail at g (Fig. 591), h being a 
wood block supporting the gutter. Fig. 

594 is an enlarged detail of the ventilator, 
the louvres J being of 6-in. by 1-in. stuff ; 
k is an oak rod for opening the louvres ; l, 
the ridge roll of 2|-in. by lj-in. stuff ; and 
m the ridge of 6-in. by lj-in. stuff. 

Light Truss with Bent Rib. 

The principle of the truss shown in Fig. 

595 was applied in the Bristol Exhibition 
Buildings in 1893. The bent rib is built 
up with stuff of 1 in. or 1J in. thickness, each 
bent separately into position ; the whole is 
held together with iron bands. This method 



8 in., centre to centre. Fig. 597 illustrates 
the method of bracing the trusses together. 
If a neat appearance inside is desired, grooved 
and tongued boarding 1 in. thick would be 
most suitable as an inner covering. The 
outer covering should be of felt, corrugated 
iron, or similar material. Fig. 598 is a con- 
ventional view of a little more than half of 
a completed truss, Fig. 599 being a conven- 
tional view of the two separate thicknesses, 
and of the necessary breaking of the joints, 
etc. The several parts of the trusses must 
be nailed together. 

Plank Truss Roof to Cover Large 
Area. 

A plank truss roof to cover a large area 
such as a drill hall or similar building is 



Lff 



Fig. 613. — Elevation of Irregular 
Hipped Roof. 



Fig. 



612. — Plan of Irregular Hipped 
Roof. 




is superior in many respects to bending a 
solid rib, distributing any weakness, in the 
shape of cross-grain, knots, etc., that other- 
wise would endanger the solid rib, and 
counteracting any excessive strain on the 
convex and concave surfaces of any timber 
so bent, the surfaces being in length as re- 
quired by the sweep. For the same reasons 
the rib would have little or no tendency to 
revert to a straight position. 

Circular Roof constructed of Boards. 

At Fig. 597 is shown a transverse section 
and also a part of a longitudinal section 
through a circular roof made cheaply of 
boards. The ribs of the trusses are made 
out of two thicknesses of 9-in. by lj-in. 
boards, and are finished to a parallel width 
of 6 in. The truss braces also are made of 
6-in. by l|-in. stuff. For a building about 
47 ft. long, eleven would be a suitable number 
of trusses, spacing them out at about 4 ft. 



es o 



illustrated by Figs. 600 to 605. This 
roof has been designed to span 60 ft., 
the trusses being 12 ft. apart. The princi- 
pal rafters, collars and ribs are built up in 
three thicknesses, the centre planks being 
11 in. by 3 in. and the two outer ones 
11 in. by 2 in. ; the braces and struts are 
4J in. by 3 in. and are notched into the 
central planks as shown by the conventional 
view (Fig. 604). The whole is bolted 
together by 7-in. by f-in. bolts and nuts, 
as illustrated. The feet of the trusses 
are fixed into an 11 -in. by 4-in. oak sill which 
runs the whole length of each side of the 
building. The purlins are 8 in. by 3 in., 
placed about 3 ft. apart, and are connected 
to the principal rafters by being housed 
and notched as shown in Fig. 605 ; lj-in. 
grooved and tongued and beaded boarding 
is fixed to the purlins to form the ceiling, 
and so is carried across level with the top 
of the collar. 



160 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



Roof for Large Open Shed. 

. The construction of a roof for a large span 
shed is illustrated by Figs. 606 to 611. 
In constructing such a roof, the aim should 




Fig. 614.— Method of Obtaining Positions of Hips. 

be to avoid complicated joints. Therefore, 
the collar A and tie-beam (Fig. 606) are 
made of two thicknesses, the former being 
bolted to the king-post, brace and principal 
rafter, and the latter being bolted to the 
brace and head of the post. The general 
further construction is clearly shown by 
the detailed views (Figs. 608 to 611). To 
prevent the shed being lifted by wind, the 
post should be let some distance into the 
ground and there connected by ties as 
indicated at k (Figs. 606 and 607). 

Irregular Hipped Roof. 

There are several ways of covering a build- 
ing erected upon an irregular site, such as 
that shown in the plan (Fig. 612). First the 
ridge may be kept level, and the rafters 
thrown into winding ; secondly, the planes 
of the sides of the roof may be kept true, 
and the ridge thrown out of level, as indi- 
cated by the dotted outline in Fig. 613 ; 




Fig. 615.— Detail of Irregular Hipped Roof Truss. 



which is perhaps the one that is most gener- 
ally useful, may be adopted. In this case 
the roof is truncated — that is, it is treated 
as if the upper portion contained within the 




I 1 1 ! 1 1 1 1 


1 1 1 l 1 1 1 1 


1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 


1 




1 1 


1 f 




1 1 1 


■ 1 




1 1 


1 1 




1 1 1 


1 




1 ! 


1 1 




! ' I 


1 


II 


1 1 1 1 



Fig. 616.— Elevation of Corbelled Wall. 

dotted outline in Fig. 613 were cut off ; 
then a flat is formed on the top, as shown 
in the plan by the triangle abc; the in- 
clination of the lower portion being every- 
where alike, and the lengths of the rafters 
being the same on each of the four sides. 

Setting Out the Roof. — In setting out a 
roof of this description, the first process, 
after the plan of the roof is drawn in out- 
line, is to ascertain the position of the hips. 




Fig. 617.— Method of Corbelling Wall to carry 
Plate. 



thirdly, the ridge may be kept level, and The method is shown in a separate diagram 

the inclinations of the various sides of the to larger scale (Fig. 614). Each of the angles 

roof made to differ ; and, lastly, the method formed by the wall plates is bisected as 

shown in the accompanying illustrations, shown, and the bisectors (which are the 



TIMBER ROOFS. 



161 



seats of the hips) are produced until 
they intersect, the point of intersection 
being the centre line of the ridge, or ridges. 
Having drawn the plans of the hips, from 
the point of intersection at a draw lines a b 
and a c parallel to the respective walls, and 
from the points of intersection of these lines, 
with the hip lines at the wide end, draw the 
line b c, which, if the construction is correct, 
will be parallel to the wall at that end. The 
triangle so formed is the outline of the flat 
to be covered with lead or zinc. Next, to 
obtain the shape of the trusses, determine 
their position and number, which would 
depend on the size of the roof and 
the nature of the covering. In the 
illustration, four are shown. Draw the 
centre line a e, which would represent the 
ridge if the roof was carried up to a single 
ridge, and draw the seats of the trusses 
s, s, s, s, at right angles to this central line. 
From the points in the plan where the seats 



of the trusses cross the outlines of the fiat, 
draw perpendiculars to the seat lines, as 
shown ; make these equal in length to the 
height of the roof, as given, and join these 
points by straight lines to each other, and 
the intersection of the seat line with the 
wall. The outlines so obtained will be the 
shape of the respective trusses ; or rather, 





162 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY 



the outline of common rafters and bearers, 
as shown in Fig. 615 ; the truss is drawn to 
the same shape, but within the outlines, as 
shown. It will be noticed that the truss at 
the narrow end is a king-post truss, the 
remainder being queen-post trusses. The 
common rafters, a few only of which are 
shown, should be drawn at right angles to 
the walls ; if laid otherwise, their edges 
will not lie in one plane, and the boards or 
battens will not sit solidly on them. The 
jack rafters are cut against the hips in the 
usual manner. The thick lines in Fig. 613 
represent the trusses, the thin lines the 



bearers framed into it, and a central bearer | 
at b, to carry the other ends of the cross 



Wll 



I 



'!!!'i 



i ii i ' i i "" 

1 iPVl W5S5T-5 




Fig. 621.— Timbering for Villa Roof. 

rafters. Fig. 615 represents an enlarged bearers ; this is sometimes raised to give 
detail at the head of one of the trusses, a fall to either side of the lead flat. Figs, 
showing one of the ridge boards r, with cross 616 and 617 show a method of carrying the 



TIMBER ROOFS. 



163 



wall plate at the wide end of the building 
when the roof is pitched from an existing 
wall. Three courses of bricks are corbelled 
out to take the wall plate, and about every 




Fig. 



622. — Section through Gutter behind 
Parapet. 



8 ft. a short pier is built out resting upon a 
stone corbel. This is done in order to obtain 
the necessary weight to prevent the upper 
courses overturning. 

Arrangement of Roof Timbers to Suit 
Given Plan. 

First Example. — The arrangement of the 
timbers for a roof of the plan shown in 



continued. A stouter rafter as shown at 
d, to meet on the opposite side of the ridge 
where the valley rafter and the hip rafter 
b and c meet, would be advantageous. 

Second Example. — In Fig. 619 A is gable, 
end, b lean-to, c valley rafter. The arrange- 
ment of the various members of the roof 
is shown. The sizes are as follows : Com- 
mon rafters, 4 in. or 4J in. by 2 in. ; ridge r 
11 in. by 1J in. ; purlins, 9 in. by 4 in. ;: 
valley rafter, 11 in. by 1 J in. ; wall plates r 
4J in. by 3 in. At g is shown a valley rafter ; 
at f is an alternate method, in which the 
common rafters continue to the wall plate r 
and a valley board is nailed to them, to 
which the feet of the short rafters of the 
covering to the bay are nailed as indicated. 

Third Example. — For the villa roof shown 
by Fig. 620 the arrangement of timbers will 
be as in Fig. 621. The outside dimensions* 
of the whole roof are, roughly, 42 ft. by 
45 ft. Suitable sizes for the roof timbers- 
are as follows : Purlins, 7 in. by 4 in. r 
valley rafters, 11 in. by 2 in. ; common and 
jack rafters, 3 J in. by 2| in. ; ridges, 7 in. by 
1J in. The thickness of the external walls 
shouhj be brick and a half (13J in.). The 
internal walls, which are connected with the 




Fig. 623. — Arrangement of Bearers behind Parapet 
Wall. 

Fig. 618 will be as shown in that illustra- 
tion. The valley rafter b and the hip 
rafter c would fit together against the 
ridge a, and the hip rafter c need not be 



Fig. 624. — Cross Section through Trough Gutter 
supported by Iron Column. 

chimney breasts, must be at least 9 in. ; 
the other internal walls should be 9 in. for 
good substantial work, but for ordinary 
purposes the walls are more frequently only 



1(51 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



half a brick thick (4J in.). Of course, the 
best method constructionally is to build up 
the internal walls to carry the purlins, but 
this is seldom done, as the purlins can be 
supported by struts resting on plates bedded 
on the walls. The feet of the rafters along 
a A can be carried by bird's-mouthing them 
on to two 9-in. by 3-in. deals bolted to- 
gether, then the V gutter is formed between 
the rafters in the usual manner with two drips 
and falls as indicated on the plan (Fig. 620) . 

Gutters behind Parapet, behind 
Chimney, and to "M" Roof. 

Fig. 622 shows a section through a gutter 
behind a parapet : a is the tilting fillet, 
B the bearer ; drips and fall are 
shown. The conventional view (Fig. 623) 
clearly shows a method of constructing 
and fixing the bearers ; those at a are 
arranged to form a drip. Gutter board- 
ing is shown at b. Fig. 624 is a cross 
section through a trough gutter in an 
" M " roof showing falls, drips and cesspool, 
also outlet in a cast-iron column ; the 
•column assists in supporting the roof. 



JSL 



JUL 




W "IS 

Fig. 626.— Plan of Trimming and Bearers for 
Gutter to Chimney. 




Fig. 627. 



-Vertical Section of Trimming and 
Gutter behind Chimney. 




The conventional sectional view (Fig. 625) 
makes clear the general construction. The 
beams a act as the sides of the gutters, and 
a as pole -plates for the feet of the rafters ; 
b is the gutter board, c bearer, d cesspool, 
and e head of column. Figs. 626 to 628 
show the trimming and construction of a 
gutter behind a chimney. The gutter in 
Fig. 628 is formed to discharge the rain- 
water on both sides. 



Fig. 625. — Conventional Sectional View of Trough 
Gutter supported by Iron Column. 



TIMBER ROOFS. 



10: 



Ridges and Purlins Trimmed to rafter next to the wal1 is generally fixed 

rh . to a trimming piece a (Fig. 629), which 

imneys * rests a little way in the wall, and is nailed 

Usually the ridge simply butts up against to the rafter at the other end ; sometimes 

the chimney, being held in position only by these two latter timbers are stub mortised 




Fig. 628. — Conventional View of Trimming ancTGutter. 




Fig. 629. — Trimming for Rafter against Chimney. 



the rafters If desired, the ridge can bfe 
supported on an iron corbel built into the 
chimney, but this is seldom considered 
necessary. When trusses are provided the 
ridge is further supported by them. The 



Fig. 630. — Supporting Purlin against^Chimney 
by Corbelling. 

and tenoned together. Of course, a purlin, 
must not be allowed to enter a chimney 
breast, but only butt against it, therefore- 
a purlin must be supported by brick or 



166 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



stone corbelling built in the chimney as 
illustrated at Fig. 630. In the case when 
the position for the purlin has not been 
anticipated, and thus no corbelling has been 




Fig. 633 



with two purlins, and the latter being a 
view of the hip and purlins taken parallel 
to the purlin a (Fig. 631). Fig. 633 is a 
view of the hip and purlin b. These views 
clearly show a general method of abutting 
the purlins against the hips. 

Fixing Valley and Jack Rafters. 

Fig. 634 shows the valley rafter notched 
over the wall plate, and cut between the 
ridges. The jack rafters are also shown 
fixed to the valley rafter and ridges. 

Bevels and Lengths for Hips and 
Rafters. 

The following is a simple method of obtain- 
the lengths of timber and bevels of hips 



Fig. 634. 



-Fixing Valley and Jack 
Rafter. ' 



Fig. 631. — Plan of Joints of Purlins 
and Hip. 

Fig. 632. — Elevation; View taken 
parallel to Purlin A (Fig. 631). 



633. — Elevation ; View 
parallel to Hip. 



taken 



provided, a good plan is to rake out a joint 
and fix an iron corbel with cement. 

Joints between Purlins and Hips. 

The proper way to support the purlins at 
the hipped end of an ordinary roof is shown 
by Figs. 631 and 632, the former being a 
plan of the hip and the meeting of the hip 



and rafters. First set up the elevation of 
pitch as shown in Fig. 635, and in the plan 
in Fig. 636. To obtain the length of the hip 
set up c e at right angles to b c, and, making 
c E equal to the height c' d, join b e, which 
gives the length required. The bevels for 
application to the side of the hip are shown 
at 1 and 2. ^ The bevel for the edge is shown 



TIMBER ROOFS. 



167 



at 3. This bevel is obtained as follows : 
Produce the ridge line as shown by c f, 
making it any length, project fgh at 
right angles to bc and H K at right angles 
to b e, make h k equal to f g, join e k, 
which gives the bevel shown at 3. Take 
S any point l in the plan of the hip and draw 
L n at right angles to b e, then from l draw 
l m at right angles to bc; then with l as 
centre ;and n as radius draw the arc n o ; 
join m o, then the bevel shown at 4 is for 
the backing of the hip. The bevel for the 
top end of the jack rafters is shown at 5 




Fig. 639. 




€ F 

Fig. 638.— Line of Pitch of Roof at A B C. 
Fig. 639.— Plan of Roof at D E F G. 



Fig. 637. — Backing of Hip Rafter. 



to get this, use b as centre and e as radius, 
and cut the ridge line in p; join a p, and 
draw r s at right angles to a b. If r x 
is the plan of a jack rafter, r s will be its 
true length. Another method of obtaining 
the length of these rafters is also shown. 
Let t u and v w be the plans of two rafters, 
project u u' and w w' as shown, then a' u' 
gives the length of the rafter shown in plan 
t u, and a' w' that of v w. The bevels to 
apply to the sides of rafters are shown at 
6 and 7. 

Backing of Hip Rafter. — The bevel shown 
at 4 (Fig. 636) is for the backing of the hip— 



168 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



that is, planing the upper edge into two 
surfaces, so that each is in the same plane 
as the adjacent top edges of the rafters ; this 
will be clearly understood by referring to 
Fig. 637. The object of the backing is to 



is the formation of the top edge into ,.< two 
planes, as shown and described above. The 
following method can be adopted for find- 
ing backing to hips. Set out to scale the 
line of the pitch of the roof as shown at 




Fig. 640.— Bevel applied 
to Hip. 




Fig. 641. — Geometrical Method of obtaining 
Bevels for Jack Rafters. 

prepare a direct bearing for the boarding or 
slating battens. The term backing of hip 
is sometimes used to denote the distance 
from the back of the hip to the edge of the 
plate, but the proper meaning of the term 



Fig. 642. — Diagram showing pictorially how to 
obtain Bevels for Jack Rafters. 

abc (Fig. 638), and a portion of the plan 
defg (Fig. 639) ; e g will be the plan of 
the hip. At right angles to eg set up g h, 
making it the same length as the height 
B c, then e h is the pitch of the hip. In e g 
take any point, as k, and at right angles to 
this line draw d f through k. With K as 
centre draw the arc l m tangent to e h as 
shown, join M f, which is the angle of the 
backing. Set the bevel to the drawing as 
shown. Fig. 640 is a sketch showing the 
bevel being applied to the hip. A drawing 
as shown at Figs. 638 and 639 can be sketched 
on a board to about 1-in. scale on a building, 
and it will be found to take up much less 
time than the rule-of-thumb method of guess 
and trial. If work is to be done properly, 
and without mistakes, time must be allowed 
to set it out. There is no other proper way. 

Bevels for Jack Rafters. 

The making of a cardboard model, as 
described in this paragraph, will greatly 
help to make clear the method of determin- 
ing the bevels for jack rafters. On a piece 



TIMBER ROOFS. 



169 



of ^card, say about 6 in. square (Fig. 641), 
draw a line x Y ; then set up a c equal to 
the pitch of the roof at right angles to x Y. 
Draw A b, which corresponds to the wall 
plate. Now draw bc as the line plate of 




Fig. 643.— Taking off Bevels for Rafters. 

the hip ; then from c raise a projection to 
c 1 . There is now a line plan of a portion 
of the roof, and also a line elevation. In 
the elevation at 1 and 2 are the bevels for 
the feet and head of the rafters, and at 3 is 
shown the plan of the bevel required for the 
top edges of the rafters. Now, to get the 
true shape of this bevel, rotate the plane 
abc into the horizontal plane. To do this, 
with centre a describe the arc c 1 d, and join 
B d ; then a b d is the true shape of A b c, 
and the bevel shown at 4 is the one re- 




Fig. 644. — Applying Bevel to Edge of Rafter. 

quired. To make the construction quite 
clear, cut out a piece of card the shape of 
abd; fold the horizontal plane and the 
vertical plane at right angles to each other, 
and place the pieces of card in position, as 

8 



shown at Fig. 642. It will then be seen 
that the bevel at 4 is the one required, and 
that it stands over its plan as shown at 3 
in Fig. 642. 

Taking off Bevels for Rafters. 

Bevels for rafters are taken off the drawing 
and put on the stuff to be cut in the way- 




Fig. 645.— Applying Bevel to Side of Rafter. 

described below. Set out for the bevels 
as shown at Fig. 643, the bevel at a being 
for the vertical cut, and that at b for the 
bevel to be applied at the edge of the rafter. 
The bevels can be set from the drawing 
as shown at Fig. 643. Fig. 644 shows the 
bevel b (Fig. 643) applied to the top edge 
of the rafter, and Fig. 645 shows bevel a 
(Fig. 643) applied to the side of it. This 




Fig. 646.— Application of Bevels to Side and 
Edge of Rafter. 

will ^perhaps be more clearly understood 
from the isometric view given at Fig. 646, 
which shows the application of the bevels. 
The form of the cut c (Fig. 643) is the bevel 
for feet of rafters. 



170 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



Bevels for Hips, etc., to Roofs over 
Obtuse or Acute Angles. 

The foregoing cases of obtaining bevels 
for hips and rafters have been for roofs 
with the wall plates at right angles and the 
plan of the hip bisecting the angle between 
them. Many students are able to deal 
readily with such examples ; but when a case 
is presented as shown by Fig. 647, where the 
plan of the plates at a makes an obtuse 



bevel shown at m is for application to the 
edges of the jack rafters. To obtain the 
development of the hip end agb, produce 
a b and draw x y at right angles ; project 
from G, and make x g' equal to e f. Join 
g' to h, so obtaining the inclination of the 
hipped end of the roof. With H as centre 
and g' as radius, obtain the point k'. From 
G project down at right angles to the 
line a b ; this gives the point k. Then 
the bevels shown at k will be for the jack 







Fig. 647.— Method of obtaining Bevels for Feet and Side Cuts, and also the Backing of Hips. 



angle, and at B an acute angle, and the plan 
of the hips does not bisect the angles, they 
often cannot get a correct result, although 
the geometrical principles are similar, as 
will be shown. At cde set up the pitch 
of the roof taken at right angles to the 
plates ; produce r c and f d indefinitely ; from 
c with c e as radius obtain point n ; from 
d, with d e as radius, obtain point o ; 
draw n L parallel to A c, obtaining the point 
l. Join a l ; then clearly alnc is the 
development of the side of the roof a c f g, 
and the bevel at l is for the top cuts of the 
jack rafters. The development of the side 
of the roof b g f d has been obtained in 
exactly similar manner at b d o m, and the 



rafters on each side. The bevels for the 
side top cuts are shown at e and g', and for 
the feet at c, d, and h. To obtain the bevels 
for the backing of the hip at a g, at any 
point in its plan draw a b at right angles to 
a g. Set up g c at right angles to A g, 
making it equal to e f. Join A c. On the line 
ac set up e d at right angles to a c, cutting 
ag in d. "With d as centre, draw an arc 
tangent to a c, with radius d e, and so 
obtain point /. Join a f b f ; then the 
bevels shown at / will be for the backing of 
the hip, that at c will be for the vertical cut of 
the hip, whereas that at a will be for the 
foot. If this working has been carefully 
followed no difficulty will be found in setting 



TIMBER ROOFS. 



171 



out the bevels for the acute angle at b. The 
plan acdb has been reproduced in Fig. 
648 with the complete setting out of the 
timbers, and also the development of the 
sides of the roof which give the true length 
of each timber and the bevel for the top 
cut against the hip. A cardboard model 
set out on this principle, and folded up, 
would prove the working. The bevels 
shown at 1, 2, 3, and 4 are similar to the 
corresponding ones at Fig. 647. 



then from d, d c at right angles to a c, from 
b and c set up the pitches of the roof sur- 
faces, as shown by lines b e and c f. Set out 
the sections of the purlins from b and c and 
at right angles to the lines b e and c f. Pro- 
ject down from the section at g' and h' to 
g, and so obtain the plan of the top edge and 
inner surface of the purlin ; from p r n' to 1 
and 2 the plan of the edge and side of the 
adjacent purlin is obtained. To make the 
working clearer, assume that the end of the 




' K\ 



Fig. 648. — Plan of Timbering of Hipped End Roof, with Wall Plates making Obtuse and Acute 
Angles ; also Development of each Side of Roof. 



Bevels for Purlins. 

The following will be found a good general 
method for obtaining the bevels for purlins. 
Assume that the plans of the wall plates 
are at right angles to each other, and that 
the plan of the hip bisects the angle be- 
tween the plates. To an enlarged scale 
set out a portion of the plan as at a b c 
(Fig. 649). Set out the plan of the hip, its 
centre line being b d as shown. Fix on any 
point a in the centre line of the hip, and 
draw ab, ac parallel to the plan of the line 
of wall plates ab, b c. At any convenient 
point in a b draw b d at right angles to ab ; 



purlin which fits against the hip haslbeen 
removed to the position nop (which, of 
course, is parallel to 1 and 2). Continue 
d b, taking this line as an x y ; then, with 
b as centre and p r and n' as radii, obtain 
points g' r', thus constructing the edge and 
side of the purlin into the horizontal plane. 
Then project down from q' and r' parallel to 
b c, and from p and n parallel to x Y, thus 
obtaining points q and r. Then the true 
shape of the end of the side of the purlin is 
shown by the bevel e, and that for the edge 
at f. The application of these bevels to the 
purlin is shown by Fig. 650. The case just 



172 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 







Fig. 650. — Conventional View showing- 
Application of Bevels to Purlins. 



Fig. 649. — Bevels for Purlins where the Corner of the 
Building is a Right Angle, and the Plan of^the 
Hip bisects it. 




Fig. 651.— Obtaining Bevels 
for Purlins where the 
Plans of the Wall Plates 
make an Acute Angle, 
and the Plan of the Hip 
does not bisect it (as 
at B, Fig. 648). 



TIMBER ROOFS. 



173 



dealt with, is soon mastered by the average 
student, but a difficulty is usually met with 
in obtaining bevels for purlins where the 
plates are at obtuse or acute angles, and the 
plans of the hips do not bisect the angle 
between them. Therefore take the case 
of the purlins fitting against the hip at e 
(Fig. 648). By carefully working out this 
case, it will be seen that the geometrical 
principles are those involved in the preced- 
ing example. Set out a b, b c, for the lines 



pitch of that side of the roof ; continue the 
lines e b and / c, and set out the sections and 
plans of the purlins as shown. Then with 
b as centre and p' and n' as radii obtain 
points q' and /, projecting down from these 
and p and n respectively parallel to x y, 
points q and r are obtained, and thus the 
bevels e and f. Although the bevels G- and 
H are not the same angles as E and f, they 
are obtained in exactly similar manner, as 
will be seen. It should be noted that as far 
as practicable the same lettering has been 
adopted as in the case of Fig. 649. 

Bevels for Hips. 

At Fig. 652 is shown a method of obtain- 
ing the bevels for the head of a hip cutting 
full against the side of a ridge (see Fig. 654). 
Let a represent the plan of the end of the 




Fig. 652.— Bevel for 

Edge of Hip, fitting 

full against the Side 

of the Ridge. 



of wall plates (Fig. 651), and b d the centre 
line of the plan of the hip ; fixing upon any 
point a in it, draw ab,ac, parallel to b c, a b 
respectively. At any convenient point b draw 
b d at right angles to b c, and from d draw 
d c at right angles to a c. From b set up the 
pitch of the roof and draw d e at right angles 
to b d, and d f at right angles to d c. Make 
d f equal to d e ; joining c f should give the 



Fig. 653. — Conventional View of 
Geometrical Working of Fig. 652. 

ridge and abed the plan of the hip (not 
backed), cut to fit against the ridge. At right 
angles to the plan of the ridge draw x y 
from b ; project up to it, obtaining point e ; 
then set up the angle of the roof ; then pro- 
ject up from c, so obtaining the point /. By 
continuing a d each way, use it as an x y ; 
project up from c, and make I c' equal to the 
height 2/. Join a' c' ; consider this the 



174 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY 





A 




o 








M*3 




*? . 




•~ tJ 'S 




*sa 


^T 


\ *ft* 




X « ^3 -rt 


A 


\ ^-£a 


/ \ 


\ ^ boW 




\ > I ° 




\ yT +3 +3 




\ V \ to 












<j gs 




TIMBER ROOFS. 



175 



vertical trace ; project from d and obtain 
d' ; from c' at right angles to the vertical 
trace obtain c", which is equal to c'. From 
a, set out at right angles to the vertical 
trace, making a' h' equal to a b ; join V to 
c" and c" to d' '. Then the bevel k is for the 
edge of the hip, that at l, of course, being 
for the side. If cuts be made along the 
lines a' V, V c", e" d\ and folds made along 
the line a' d\ and also along the line x y, the 



Fig. 660. — Plan of Octagonal 
Pyramidal Roof. 



ing. Fig. 654 is a conventional view of the 
hips in their positions against the ridge, and 
indicates the application of the bevels to 
the top edge and side of hip, where the 
hips are mitred together, and also butt 




m^r t m 



true shape of the edge can be made to stand 
over its plan, as indicated by the conven- 
tional sketch (Fig. 653), which can be easily 
followed, as the same lettering is adopted as 
in Fig. 652. A model made as suggested 
in thick paper or card would prove the work- 



Fig. 659. — Elevation of Octagonal 
Pyramidal Roof when Boarded. 



against the end of the ridge, as shown by 
Fig. 655. The geometrical principles of this 
are exactly the same as explained in the 
previous case, and the working is shown at 
Fig. 656, where m and l are the required 
bevels for the edge, and n for the side. Fig. 



176 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



657 is a conventional view of a model made 
to prove the working of Fig. 656. If the 
method shown by Fig. 652 has been mas- 
tered, no difficulty will be found in this 
example. Fig. 658 shows the hips mitred 
and butted against end of ridge. 

Octagonal Pyramidal Roof at the 
Angle of a Building*. 

The method of obtaining the intersections, 
and the method of construction of an 
octagonal pyramidal roof intersecting at the 
angle of a hipped roof, will now be described. 
Figs. 659 and 660 show, respectively, the 



is the line of boarding. The other half, 
a 3 4 5 6 b, it will be noticed, is a little less, 
this being the line of rafters. To avoid 
confusing the diagrams with a number of 
lines, the line of the wall has been omitted ; 
it would, of course, form a smaller parallel 
octagon to those shown. Next set out line 
a b, which is the line of feet of rafters, and 




Fig. 661. — Plan of Hips, Rafters, 
etc., of Octagonal Pyramidal 
Roof, and also Section of Foot 
of Main Roof. 



elevation and plan, and also the intersections 
where the pyramidal roof meets the hipped 
roof, as a, b, c, d, e, f, g. Before the inter- 
sections shown by Figs. 659 and 660, and 
the timbers shown by Figs. 661 to 663, can 
be properly set out, it will be necessary to 
obtain the intersections of the boarded sur- 
faces geometrically. The method of doing 
this is shown by Fig. 664, and is as follows : 
Set out the half octagon a 2 1 8 7 b, which 



e f, which is the line of face of the fascia 
board of the main roof, also the line of 
the main hip, as shown at g h. At right 
angles to 1 8, draw o p, and at right angles to 
this line set up o R, making it equal to the 
height. Join p r, which is the true inclina- 
tion of the sides of the pyramidal roof. At 
any point along e f draw x y at right angles 
to it, and set up the pitch of the main roof 
as shown by x s. Now take any point t on 



TIMBER ROOFS. 



177 




this pitch line, and project down at right 
angles to x y, meeting it in a, as shown. 
From o mark off o v equal to the height 
t u. From v project across to w, parallel to 
o p. From w project 
down at right angles 
to o p, meeting it in 
d. Then from d draw 
d a parallel to 18, 
which will meet t u 
in a. Join e a, which 
gives the intersection 
of the surface o 1 8, 
and the main roof. 
For the next inter- 
w a cuts o 8 in e, 
to 7 8. Now pro- 



from where 
a line parallel 



Fig. 662.— Vertical Section of Octagonal Pyramidal 
Roof showing Principal Timbers. 




Fig. 663. — Elevation of Octagonal Pyramidal Roof 
ready for Boarding, 



section 
draw 

duce t u, which meets the last line in /. 
Then from b draw through / to meet o 7 in 
g. This gives the intersection of the main 
roof with the triangular portion o 7 8. The 
side b 7 should be continued so as to meet 
e p in h. Join h g, and produce to g. Then 
g g is half of the intersection of the surface 
7 o 6. Workers having a knowledge of 
geometry will see that the principle of work- 
ing has been based on a problem in hori- 
zontal projection, the specific problem 
being : Given the horizontal traces and the 
inclinations of planes, find their intersec- 
tions. 

Developments of Surfaces. — If it is desired 
to obtain the 
developments of 
the several sur- 
faces, they can 
be obtained in 
the following 
manner : — Draw 
p o at right angles 
to 1 8, and o e 
at right angles to 
o p. Measure on 
o R the height. 
Join p r, which gives the inclination and 
true length of the centre line of the 
full surfaces. Bisect line 2 3, and at 
right angles to it draw a k, making a k 
the same length as p p. Join 2 k and 
3 k, which gives the true shape of each of 
the full surfaces. This development can 
be used to show the true shape of the sur- 
faces which intersect with the roof. From 



178 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 




a 1 a 






11 



.; 



TIMBER ROOFS. 



179 



b project up to meet the line p r in b', make 
a z equal to p b', then through z draw line 
g' z m parallel to a 3 ; next make 3 l equal to 
e 8. Then 2 l m k is the true shape of the 
side 1 e b o. From g draw a parallel to 7 8, 
meeting 8 o in k, then from the point h draw 
a line parallel to 1 8, and continue it to 
meet p r in !. Now measure off on 
the line a k a distance a x equal to p I. 
Through x draw a parallel to 2 3, meeting 3 k 
in point n. Join n q, then n q K is the true 
shape of the surface g b o. From g draw 
g m n s parallel to b 7 8 p. From s project 
up to meet p r in r. Make a u equal to r p. 
Join, n u and u v ; then n uv k is the true 
development of the surface j g g o. 

Bevels of Parts, and Backing of Hips. — 
The method of obtaining the bevels of the 
several parts may now be described, the 
means of obtaining the backing of the hips 
being first shown. At right angles to o 4 
set up o 9, and make it equal to the height ; 
join 4 9, which gives the true rake of the 
hips. At 11 is shown the bevel for- the 
vertical cut of the top, and at 12 that for 
the foot. As will be seen, one edge of this 
bevel is adjacent to the pitch line ; the 
other, being horizontal, is drawn parallel to 
o 4. For the backing of the hips, join 3 5, 
and from where this line meets o 4 in point 

10, draw an arc tangent to the pitch line 
4 9. From where the arc meets 4 10 in point 

11, join to 5 and 3 as shown ; then d is the 
bevel required. The bevel for where the 
hips meet each other is shown at 13. Refer- 
ence to Fig. 662 will show where this bevel 
will be required, and also that the upper 
part of the mast or central post is octagonal. 
This allows the upper cuts of the hips to be 
made square through their thickness, and 
therefore no bevel is required. The develop- 
ment of the intersection shown at 
3 M n K v q 2 gives us the bevels for the feet 
of the hips and rafters a, b, c, d, e, f, and 
G (Fig. 661). The bevels 14, 15, 16, and 17 
(Fig. 664) are for the feet of the hips a, b, e, 
and f respectively (Fig. 661). These bevels 
are for application after the hips have been 
backed. The bevels to apply to the backs 
of the feet of the jack rafters at c and d 
(Fig. 661) are shown at 18 (Fig. 664), whilst 
the bevel for the foot of g (Fig. 661) is shown 
at 19 (Fig. 664). It will be noticed that 



the valley rafters shown by 1, 2, 3 (Fig. 661) 
have their upper edges in the same plane as 
the main roof ; therefore it will be necessary 
to obtain a bevel for the preparation of these 
edges. The geometrical construction for this 
is as follows : — From any point in the plan 
of the valley, as h (Fig. 661), draw the hori- 
zontal line h k and draw h l at right angles 
to 2 3 ; then at any point in h l draw x y at 
right angles to it, and cutting line h k in k. 
From where h k cuts the pitch of the roof 
as shown at m, draw m n at right angles to 
h k. Then from l drop a perpendicular to 
m n as shown. Next project l p at right 
angles to x y, and make it equal in length to 
n o. Now join k p ; then with l as centre, 
draw an arc tangent to k p, meeting x y 
in R. Join r h, which will give the bevel 
required as shown at 25. The bevels for 
application to the sides of the jack rafters 
are shown at 20 and 21 (Fig. 664), whilst the 
bevel at 13 is for application to the tops of the 
jack rafters. The methods of obtaining the 
bevels for the jack rafters for the main roof 
are shown by 22, 23, and 24 (Fig. 664) 
respectively. 

Further Constructional Details. — The hip 
of the main roof, as will be noticed, requires 
supporting at the lower end. This is done 
by placing a beam across the octagonal 
space, as shown at s and s' (Figs. 661 and 
662). Then the end of the hip is bird's- 
mouthed on to this beam, an isometric 
detail of which is shown at Fig. 665 ; this 
figure also shows how the mast forks over 
the end of the hip, and has two stub tenons 
fitting into mortises made in the beam so as 
to keep the whole secure. The ceiling 
joists in the octagonal space are built into 
the walls as shown in plan (Fig. 661) and 
section (Fig. 662). Of course, as is usual, 
the ceiling joists under the main roof run 
parallel to one of the front walls. The 
ends of four of these (u, v, w, and z) cannot 
be carried to any wall, therefore a trimmer 
is provided of stouter scantling to carry 
these ends, as shown in the plan and section 
(Figs. 661 and 662). The boarding is clearly 
shown in Figs. 659 and 660, and therefore 
does not require further description. There 
are other little points which are fully shown 
in the illustrations, but it is not necessary 
to enlarge upon them here. 



FRAMEWORK OF DORMER WINDOWS. 



Introduction. — A dormer window is a window framing erected vertically on the rafters, 
formed in a sloping roof, the window pierc- Dormer windows are much in use in modern 
ing through the incline and having its buildings, to give adequate light to rooms 




1! i! I 


r-r- i ; l . i i i i 


ii ~r~ 


II II 


L-V^-i^ 


! ; ,1.1 , , 1 



Fig. 666.— Elevation of 
Gabled Dormer. 



Fig. 667. — Section 

of Gabled Dormer 

through A A (Fig. 

666). 



FRAMEWORK OF DORMER WINDOWS. 



181 




Fig. 668.— Isometric View 

of Timber Framework of 

Gabled Dormer. 



Fig 670. — Alternative Methods of Fixing 
Collars to Rafters. 



Fig. 669.— 

Joints of Dormer 

at F (Fig. 668). 



182 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



formed in the roof, and to afford a good view Gabled Dormer. 

of the surrounding district. They are also Figs. 666 to 672 show the leading details 

used to add to the architectural effect of of construction of a dormer window, the 





Fig. 671.— Section Through Sill, etc., of Dormer. 



Fig. 672.— Enlarged Section of Dormer through 
B B (Fig. 666). 




Fig. 673.— Section of Dormer through Portion 
of One End of Roof. 



Fig. 674.— Part Elevation of Framework, etc. 
of Dormer in Mansard Roof. 



the roof. The construction differs in vari- lower part of which is in the front wall of 

ous parts of the country, as will be gathered the house ; the oak sill of the casement 

from the typical illustrations given in this frame rests on the stone sill, connected to 

section. it by a water bar, as shown. The upper 






FRAMEWORK OF DORMER WINDOWS. 



183 



part of the window is constructed mainly 
of wood, the exposed woodwork being 
moulded as shown. The roof and the sides 
of the dormer are prepared for covering with 
lead or zinc. The advantage claimed for 
this kind of dormer, as compared with those 
situated wholly in the roof, is a larger window 



view (Fig. 668) clearly shows the relation 
and arrangement of the several timbers. 
The trimming piece shown at c is tenoned 
through the two main rafters and keyed. 
The two rafters at d and e are stub-tenoned 
into the trimmer. Fig. 669 shows the joints 
at ¥ (Fig. 668). At a in Fig. 670 the collar 




Fig. 675. — Oblique Projection of Framework of Dormer in Mansard Roof. 



opening and a higher ceiling to the roof next 
the front wall (see Fig. 667). The roof has 
overhanging eaves, with the feet of the 
rafters moulded as shown, an ogee gutter 
being fixed. The form of the exposed 
woodwork is shown in the elevation given 
(Fig. 666). Fig. 667 is a section through 
a a (Fig. 666), which exhibits the construc- 
tion of most of the parts. The isometrical 



is shown dovetail-lapped into the rafter. 
At b another method is shown, the collar 
being halved and lapped on to the rafter. 
Fig. 671 shows the oak sill, bottom rail of 
casement, nosing connection to stone sill, 
etc. At Fig. 672 is given an enlarged detail 
through b b (Fig. 666), showing the joint 
between the frame and the stile of the case- 
ments, also of the boarding nailed to the 



184 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



frame and covered with lead or zinc. After 
this boarding has been fixed, the moulding 
g is attached as shown. The dimensions 
shown of some of the principal parts should 



to 675. In constructing the framework, the 
following are the principal points requiring 
attention. The wall is IS in. thick, and is 
finished with a stone cornice. The top 




Fig. 676. — General View of Complete Framing of Bay Dormer Window. 



be regarded as suggestive rather than abso- 
lute. 

Small Dormer Window in Mansard 
Root. 

The bare framework of a small dormer 



surface of this is hollowed out of the solid 
stone, and afterwards lead is dressed in so 
as to form the gutter (see G, Fig. 673, which 
shows the brickwork, stonework, and timber 
framing). The main tie-beam is supported 
by a stone corbel as shown. This beam 
in a Mansard roof is illustrated by Figs. 673 also acts as a girder to support the floor and 



FRAMEWORK OF DORMER WINDOWS. 



185 




Fig. 677.— Elevation of Frame- 
work of Bay Dormer Window. 

Fig. 678.— Side Elevation of 
Bay Dormer. 

Fig. 679. — Plan of Framework 
of Bay Dormer Window. 



Fig. 679. 



186 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



ceiling joists. The former are cogged to 
the tie-beam, but the latter need only be 
notched on. The two rafters a and b (Pig. 
674), to which the framing of the dormer is 
attached, are thicker than the other rafters. 
The opening between these two rafters is 
formed by the trimming pieces d and e. 
The lower wall plate is held fast to each tie- 
beam by iron straps as shown at c (Fig. 



681 sufficiently show the construction, and 
therefore only the leading points need be 
mentioned. The joists rest on a wall plate 
in the usual manner, and a second plate, 
supporting the rafters, is fixed to the upper 
edges of the joists, the ends of the rafters 
also being attached to the joists. The 
gutter is of wood, supported on wooden 
bearers built into the wall as shown at Figs. 




Fig. 680.— Longitudinal 
Section of Bay Dormer. 



673). Suggestive sizes are figured on the 
different members, but of course these 
would vary according to circumstances. 

Bay Dormer Window. 

At Fig. 676 are shown conventionally 
the timbers connected with the framing of 
a bay dormer window, ready for boarding, 
battening, slating, leadwork, etc. The side- 
lights of the window are fixtures, the front 
casement opening outwards. Figs. 676 to 



676 and 680. At Fig. 676, in order that 
the construction may be clearly shown, 
the brickwork is carried up level with the 
lower plate only ; but, of course, the wall 
when completed would be finished flush, 
with the tops of the rafters. The first 
trimmer for the dormer would be formed 
by the two stout rafters, having a trimmer 
fixed at the lower end of the window and 
another at the ceiling level of it, the short 
rafters being fixed to these trimmers as shown. 



FRAMEWORK OF DORMER WINDOWS. 



W, 



North Country Style. 

The arrangement next shown is that most 
generally favoured in the North of England, 



roof timbers are trimmed to give the neces- 
sary opening, and two stout raking pieces, 
9 in. by 3 in., are provided to carry the 
sides of the dormer where the latter is of 
large size. These rakers are notched (prefer- 



II .14 B1RGE BOW- 




\tfW 



Fig. 684. — Joints in Angle Post. 

where side-lights and casement sashes are 
required. In constructing the window, the 



Fig. 682.— Front of Dormer, North Country Style. 

ably dovetailed) to purlins as will be illus- 
trated, and are fixed with joint bolts at their 
head and foot. Any intermediate purlin 
can be trimmed into these rakers where 
necessary, and the design, as well as the 
dimensions, can be easily adapted to suit 
local conditions or the special require- 
ments of any given case. 



188 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



|AW»2T ( 



I .-—M x5 Spar |'*L^ 4 ' Jl2 - Spiv , 




Purlin 11 A. 



Fig. 685.— Construction of North Country Dormer Window. 



5 a li capping 



BflRCE Bohro 1» 




Tig. 686. — Enlarged 
Section of North 
Country Dormer 
Window. 



2 X.1 RiiCN MOULT 



Construction of North Country 
Dormer Window. 

The dormer consists of a front (Fig. 682) 
and two side frames (Fig. 683), the latter 
being made to the slope of the roof, and being 
rebated for the insertion of a 2-in. sash from 
the outside. The stile of the side frame 
serves as the angle post, and in a small 
dormer the head and sill of the front frame 
are tenoned directly into it. In a larger 
dormer, however, the method here shown is 
much more convenient to adopt, especially 
where there are muntins in the front frame, 
as the latter is made as a separate frame, 
with light stiles tenoned to the head and 
sill, which are tenoned to the angle posts and 
secured and drawn tight with bed bolts as 
shown in detail (Fig. 684). When fixed, the 
stile of the front frame should also be 
screwed through the rebate to make a per- 
fectly close joint between the angle post 
and the front frame. The roof in this case 
is made to overhang all round (see Fig. 685). 
The ridge and heads of the side frames are 
allowed to project beyond the gable, to carry 
the overhanging spars, bargeboards, and 
fmial. The overhanging sides are formed 
by the spars projecting to the required 
amount ; the spar feet are covered on the 
soffit by a soffit board tongued into the 
head of the frame and into a fascia board 



FRAMEWORK OF DORMER WINDOWS. 



189 



nailed to the ends of the spars. The barge- 
boards are shaped and pierced, and are 
provided with a double-splayed capping, into 
which the bargeboards and bed mould are 
housed, and which projects over the gutter 





Fig. 688. — Detail 
Vertical, Section 
through Eaves of 
Roof and Side 
Frame. 



Fig. 687. — Detail Horizontal Section through 
Angle and Sashes. 

behind the gable (see detail, Fig. 686). The 
gable and the overhanging portion of the 
front of the dormer are boarded with 1-in. 
tongued, grooved, and V-jointed boards. 
The front frame is fitted with casements that 
open outwards (see Fig. 687), and are hung 
with 3^-in. brass butts. The interior is 





Fig. 690.— Longitudinal Section through Dormer 
on Line A A, Fig. 689. 

ceiled level up to the purlin, the ceiling 
joists resting on the heads of the side frames 
and nailed to them, the whole being lathed 
and plastered and a small scotia mould fixed 
in the angle (see detail, Fig. 688). All the 



Fig. 689.— Front Elevation of Dormer. 



90 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 




Fig. 691.-Conventional View of Trimming and 

Dormer completely framed together for niacin* 

in position and fixing. 

woodwork (except the sills of the frames 
and sashes) is of first-class red or yellow 
deal, free from any defects, especially sap 
and is painted two coats of good red-lead 
and oil paint before being fixed. The sills 
of the frames and sashes are of sound oak. 
ine joints of the woodwork are wedged and 
pinned with oak pins, each joint being 
coated with thick white-lead or red-lead 
paint before insertion. The casement sashes 
have brass shutter squares at their salient 
angles, to prevent alteration of form through 




Fig. 692.— 
Enlarged Details 
through Sill and 
Head of Frame. 



6 x 4 



FRAMEWORK OF DORMER WINDOWS. 



191 




Fig. 693. — Enlarged 

Section through C C, 

Fig. 690. 




Fig. 694. — Enlarged Detail of Head 

of Side Light and Foot of 

Rafter. 




4 x 



Fig. 695.— 
Enlarged Section 
through Case- 
ments and Angle 
Posts D D, Fig. 
689. 





Fig. 697.— 
Conventional 
View of Joints 
between Head 
Post, and Top 
Bail of Side 
Light. 



Fig. 696. — Conventional Views of Joints 

between Post, Sill, and Bottom Rail of 

Side Light (Fig. 697). 



192 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



the weight of the glazing. It is not in- 
tended to describe the construction of 
sashes in this chapter, that subject being 
reserved for exhaustive treatment later. 



represents the elevation, Fig. 690 being a 
longitudinal section. It will be seen that 
the front consists of a frame with casement 
— sashes opening outwards — and the side is 




Fig. 699. — Plan of Naked Framework. 




FiR 698 -Elevation of the Naked Timber Work of the Framing for a Large and a Small Dormer, 
in the Side and End of Hipped End Mansard Roof. 



Another North Country Dormer 
Window. 

The kind of dormer that is used where 
it is desired to gain as much light as pos- 
sible is shown by Figs. 689 and 690. Fig. 689 



framed with bars for glazing. At Fig. 691 
the trimming is clearly shown ; on each 
side of the opening a stout rafter, 4 in. by 3 in., 
is provided, and at the top of the opening a 
trimmer is tenoned through the rafter and 
keyed (Fig. 691). This trimmer is mortised 



FRAMEWORK OF DORMER WINDOWS. 



193 




§ 



bo o 
& _ 

.j-H rg 
£ PI 

o w 

02 0) 



bo 



194 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



to receive the upper rafters as shown at A. 
A deeper piece of stuff is used for the trimmer, 
B, against which the lower rafters butt. This 
trimmer is fixed to the stout rafters, and is 
allowed to project as shown so as to sup- 
port the sill of the dormer. Fig. 691, 
which is a conventional view of the dormer 
framed together ready to be fixed in its 
proper position, also shows how the stout 
rafters are supported by ashlering studs 
which are fixed to them. 



or bed screws may be used ifj'desired. 
Fig. 697 shows the connections for the' post, 
the head, and the top rail of light, the 
joints being firmly held together by a bolt 
inserted from the outside of the top rail. 
This bolt is passed through into the head in 
which has been made a mortice to receive a 
nut, as indicated at b, Fig. 697. The 
bottom and top rails of the side lights are 
connected by mortice and tenon joints at 
their upper end The top rails are made to 




Fig. 701. — View of Stone Dormer in End of completed Mansard Roof. 



Constructional Details. 

The preparing of a dormer of this descrip- 
tion is the work of a joiner rather than of a 
carpenter. A few leading particulars of 
the construction will now be given. The 
angle posts are rebated and beaded to receive 
casement sashes ; they are also chamfered 
on the outside and moulded on the inside as 
shown by the enlarged section, Fig. 695. 
These angle posts are connected to the double 
sunk oak sill in the way represented at 
Fig. 696, and to the bottom rail of the side 
light by a barefaced haunched tenon as 
shown at a in the same illustration. These 
joints may be held together more firmly 
by the insertion of stout screws 5 in. long, 



project beyond the posts so that the lower 
ends of the bargeboards may be fixed to 
them. The ridge also projects, and is 
tenoned into the finial to which the upper 
ends of the bargeboards and moulding 
are butted and fixed. The top end of the 
top rail and end of ridge piece are con- 
nected by means of two pieces of J-in. 
boards. The ceiling joists of the dormer 
are notched down on the top rails of the 
side lights and nailed. The rafters of 
spars are cut to fit the ridge, and are notched 
on to the top rails as shown. The two 
pieces of board before mentioned receive 
the ends of the small jack rafters. The 
gabled part of the dormer is formed by a 



FRAMEWORK OF DORMER WINDOWS. 



195 



chamfered muntin, and is plain boarded on with white-lead and red-lead before they 

each side. Just above the head of the are put together. In better-class work 

frame a moulding of the section shown at immediately after fixing the dormer its roof 

i Fig. 691 is planted on as a finish. The is boarded as represented in section at 

| joints of the framing should be well coated Fig. 690. The bottom rails of the side lights 




— V « V 7 — 77 

,3x13 4X2!4 



B $x2& 



-4 0- 








Fig. 703.— Section of Mansard Roof on Line D D, Fig. 702. 




/ 




\ A 










i 




1— 










^■ 


— 


z= 


= 




— 






— 






/ 










/ 






























































































=n 

1! 
-H 


u 






— 


— 


Z=3 






1 




















D 


/- 


_ — _ _ 


, 












Z / 


■■ 






y 














/ 










/ 














7> 








/ 








=7 










/ 








/ 












1 


r 








-f 














7 








/ 










1_ 












=3 








1 








\ ■ 







=-D 



Fig. 702. — Plan of Half Mansard Roof with Flat (part boarded), showing Trimming to Dormer, 
Rolls, Joists for Boards, Bridging Joists, Rafters, etc. 



196 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



rest upon and are fixed to the stout rafters, Stone Gabled Dormer. 

and the finish on the inside is formed by A more important case with regard to 

fixing a beaded lining as shown in section dormers is shown by Figs. 698 to 701. 

at e, Fig. 693. The leading dimensions of the Reference to Figs. 698 and 699 will show 

various parts are figured on the illustrations, that the side of the hipped end of a Mansard 




FRAMEWORK OF DORMER WINDOWS. 



197 



I roof has been designed to provide for a large 

| stone-gabled dormer in the end, a general 

j view of which is given at Fig. 701. A 

dormer of equal height but narrower is 

! provided for on the side. Framing for 

these dormers is of such magnitude as to 

necessitate the provision of valley rafters, 

a, b, c, and d, Fig. 699. The framing 

j for the smaller dormer is similar to that 

! for the larger one ; therefore it has not been 



with one piece, or smaller sheets may be used 
with rolls, but these are not shown. This 
is an important example, both as regards 
roofing and dormers ; but further description 
is thought unnecessary, as careful attention 
has been given in the preparation of the 
illustrations to show clearly all the essential 
points of construction, and therefore they 
should present no difficulty to the careful 
reader. 




Fig. 706. — Front Elevation of completed Dormer 
Window and Junction of Side and Flat. 

shown in the conventional view, Fig. 700, 
which is drawn so as to leave exposed some 
of the main members of the roof. It should 
be noted that in Figs. 698, 699, and 700 the 
j masonry is only carried up level with the 
wall plate ; the parapet and gutter bearers 
and boarding are omitted so as to make clear 
the more important construction. Fig. 701 
is a conventional view" of the stone gable, 
which also shows the two inclined surfaces 
of the main roof slated and with moulded 
fascia and guttering, with a lead apron under. 
The roof and side of the dormer are shown 
covered with lead. Each part may be covered 



Fig- 707. 



-Sectional Elevation through B B, 
Fig. 706. 



Dormer in Half Mansard with Flat 
Top Roof. 

Unlike the Mansard roof proper, this kind 
has practically no upper pitch, nor trusses, 



198 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



rafters, etc., to the upper portion, and thus 
there is no loss of space. It is used largely 
where intermediate walls or partitions for 
support are available to assist in carrying 
the flat, and also where it is desired to get 
as large a room space as possible. Dormers 
are almost always framed, and form an 
important part of the construction of this 
kind of roof. Figs. 702 to 707 fully show 
the construction of this description of a roof 
with dormers, etc. The following are the 
general particulars. The bridging joists of 
the floor are cogged and nailed on to a re- 
bated wall plate, or which has a fillet nailed 
on it. The plate to receive the lower ends 
of the rafters is notched and secured to 
the top edges of the joists as indicated, the 
rafters being notched into this plate as 
shown at Fig. 705. The curb plate is sup- 
ported by the rafters, and also by the stud- 
ding as shown, the latter of course tenon- 
ing into the under side of the plate. The 
bridging joists for the flat are out of 8-in. 
by 2J-in., and to produce the necessary fall 
the first 7 ft. is tapered from 6 in. to 8 in. 
(see a to b, Fig. 703), then the remaining 7 ft. 
as a firring piece 2 in. thick, increasing to 
4 in. thick, nailed on as shown at B to c 
(Fig. 703), the drip being provided for at 
B. Scantlings are nailed on to the firring 
described, forming the joists on which to 



nail the boarding for the flat. This board- 
ing should be 1J in. thick, grooved and 
tongued, and cleaned off smooth to receive 
the lead. The boarding should always be 
fixed running parallel with the fall of the 
flat, so that in the event of any of the boards 
curling up and thus forming hollows in the 
lead, the rain will not be retained in 
puddles, as its flow is not interfered with. 
Grooved and tongued lj-in. boarding is 
nailed diagonally on the rafters to receive 
the lead, as shown at Fig. 704. The curb 
plate having to span 8 ft. over the dormer, 
it is strengthened by a 6-in. by 4|-in. lintel 
bolted to its under side and supported by the 
angle studs, as indicated at Fig. 704. The 
front elevation and side elevation of the 
completed Venetian dormer window are 
shown at Figs. 706 and 707. The ceiling 
of this is arched ; the ribs to carry this and 
the boarding are shown at Fig. 704. The 
framework to receive the completed window 
is fully shown at Fig. 704. The junction 
between the side and flat is finished with an 
upper fascia and a lower fascia, and soffit 
boards, moulded modillions, guttering, etc., 
as shown in elevation and section (Figs. 706 
and 707). The construction of the dormer 
frame, casements, etc., will be treated of in 
a subsequent chapter, where a number of 
detail illustrations will be given. 



HALF-TIMBER CONSTRUCTION. 



Introduction. — In substantial half -timber 
work, English oak is used, but sound, re- 
sinous pitchpine or Scotch pine is often 




substituted. Head and gill should run 
through and be framed with the angle 
posts. Mullions should be tenoned into 
the horizontal members, and 
secured by draw-boring, the pins 
being oak f to 1 in. in diameter, 
Split and then shaped, and al- 
lowed to project from the sur- 
face about | in. All curved 
braces should be made from 
natural curved (compass) tim- 
ber. Diagonal braces should be 
halved together at their centres 



Fig. 708. — Section showing Front filled in with 
4^ -in. Brickwork Back-lathed and Plastered. 





Fig. 709. — Section showing External Stucco, Middle Coat 
of Lath and Plaster, and Internal Lathing and Plastering. 




Fig. 710.— Section through Post filled in with 9-in. Brickwork 
— Front Stuccoed ; Inside Plastered. 

199 




{For Figs. 711 
and 712 see 
next page.) 



Fig. 713.— Alternative Method of 
forming Angle Post of Two Pieces 
mitred and bolted together. 

The angle posts are usually 8 in., 
9 in., or 10 in. square, and 
the intermediate posts the same 
width, but 4 in. or 6 in. thick. 
The head pieces and sill pieces 
are of the same scantling as the 
angle posts, and are halved at the 
angles, and mortised for the ten- 
ons. The exposed faces of the 
timbers are wrought and oiled or 




Fig. 712.— Angle Post 
formed of Two Pieces 
butting and bolted 
together. 



Fig. 715. — Method of connecting Window Frames 
Fig. 714. — Method of fixing Door Frame in Half- in Half-timbered Work. 



timbered Work. 



(For Fig. 713, see 
preuious page.) 




■ 

Fig. 716. — Front Portion of Half-timbered Cottage. 



HALF-TIMBER CONSTRUCTION. 



201 



painted, red-lead mixed with boiled oil 
being used for all joints. Various forms 
of half-timber work are shown in section 
by Figs. 708 to 713 (scale = 1 in. to 
1 ft.). In Fig. 708 the angle posts shown 
are 8 in. by 8 in., and the intermediate posts 
8 in. by 4 J in., grooved at the sides, and 



ensures greater warmth and dryness. The 
fillets and battens are fixed to the sides 
and backs of the timbers to receive the 
lath and plastering. The intermediate studs 
are shown to be rebated for the middle coat 
of plaster, but this rebating is not indis- 
pensable. In the example represented 






^P^ 


"V^ 't 






11 ' 






I \ ' 


< 1 


l 1 — 1 \- 




1 1. > 


1 


1 


|-H V~\ 




1 1 1- 


1 ' 


i i i 


Ml 

ill 


^v- 




i i / 


ill 


.ill 


1 


,1 , * — i , 


A 




1 — ) ) 


■ft- 


i ) 


Hill',"' 


1 i • i 


Am 


1 i j 



Fig. 717. 

Fig. 717.— Front Elevation of Half-timbered Cottage. 
Fig. 718.— Part Side Elevation of Half-timbered Cottage. 



Fig. 718. 



filled in with 4J-in, brickwork, which is 
rendered at the back with cement, while 
small fillets fixed to the sides of the up- 
rights keep the brickwork in position. 
Battens are fixed to the backs of the timbers 
to take the lath-and-plaster work. Sometimes 
the horizontal timbers are covered on the 
upper side with sheet lead. Fig. 709 shows 
the angle posts 6 in. square, and the inter- 
mediate ones 6 in. by 3 in., grooved along 
the outer edge for external stucco or rough- 
cast. A middle coat of plaster shown 



by Fig. 710 the timbers are filled in with 
9-in. brickwork, with roughcast face. The 
angle posts are 9 in. square, and the inter- 
mediate posts 9 in. by 4- in., splay-grooved 
along the outer edge. This form is very 
substantial, and some building bye-laws 
demand it. According to some bye-laws, 
there must be at least 4J in. of brickwork 
behind all timber ; then if the angle post 
is above 5 in. by 5 in., it must be rebated at 
the back (see Fig. 711), or it must be formed 
of two pieces bolted together as shown in 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



section by Fig. 712, or mitred and bolted 
together as in Fig. 713 (p. 199). 

Fixing Door= and Window = frames. 

Figs. 714 and 715 (scale = 1 in. to 1 ft.) 
show common methods of fixing the door- 



Half = timbered Cottage. 

The application of half-timber work to a 
cottage is shown in Figs. 716 to 721. Figs. 
717 and 718 are reproduced to a scale of 
J in. to 1 ft. The following would be the 




Fig. 719. — Conventional View of naked Timber Work fitted together. 



and window-frames in half-timber work. The 
posts are in each case rebated for the frame, 
and sometimes extend the full thickness of 
the wall. 



leading points in the specification : — The 
timber (oak, fir, or pitchpine) to be of sound 
quality, without defects, thoroughly sea- 
soned, and wrought on the exposed sides. 



HALF-TIMBER CONSTRUCTION. 



203 



Angle posts tenoned to the head and sill, 
and the sills, 9 in. by 9 in., to be halved at 
the angles (see Figs. 719 and 720). All 
intermediate posts to be 6 in. by 5 in., or, 
as shown, every third post to be 6 in. by 
4 J in. and the others 6 in. by 3 in. The 
front braces to be same thickness as the 
posts, as shown. The head to be from 9 in. 
by 4 in. to 9 in. by 9 in. The joists to pro- 
ject beyond the stonework below, and tusk 
tenon into the sill. The sills to be connected 
by wrought-iron angle plates and bolts. 
When oak pins are used, two are usually 
inserted at each joint. The gable overhang- 
ing the filling in must be of light character, 
as shown by Fig. 708 or Fig. 709, in the event 
of the window below being principally con- 
structed of wood. In some districts it is 
compulsory for 9 in. of brickwork to be 
fitted in the gable as well as the sides, and 




Fig. 721. — General View of Bracket at Angle 
and Under Side of Joists, etc. 




Fig. 720.— Conventional View showing Principal Joints in Fig. 719 



204 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



therefore the window would have to be 
built of stone with mullions strong enough 
to give the necessary support. The sills 
(shown as moulded) are supported at the 



the gable, a moulding being planted on the 
upper edge. The heads of the side framings 
project, and are supported by brackets. 
These heads and also the purlins and ridge 



Fig. 722.— 
South Elevation of 
Half-timbered House. 




Fig. 723.— 

West Elevation of 

Half-timbered House 



angles by wooden bracket pieces whose 
bottom ends rest on stone corbels. In the 
best class work the sills are moulded on the 
solid, but more frequently the moulding is 
planted on (see a, Fig. 721) ; the meeting 
surfaces should be well painted. A project- 
ing transom is shown in the upper portion of 



support the first rafter, bargeboard, and 
finial. Fig. 719 shows a part of the naked 
framework fitted together, and Fig. 720 
shows the various joints in the framework. 
Fig. 721 is a general view of the bracket 
supporting the angle, also the under side of 
the joists. 



HALF-TIMBER CONSTRUCTION. 



205 



Design for Half-timbered House. 

The south elevation (Fig. 722), west 
elevation (Fig. 723), sectional elevation (Fig. 



wood framing, and the open panels plastered 
on to lathing, with grooves in the sides and 
top of the timber, so as to give a key for 
the plaster. The face of the plaster is kept 



Fig. 724.— 

Sectional Elevation 

of Half-timbered House 




Fig. 725.— 

East Elevation of 

Half-timbered House. 



724), and east elevation (Fig. 725) show a 
half-timbered house suitable for the country 
or suburbs. Red facing brick is used from 
the base to the first floor, the remaining 
portion being half-timbered work. The 
last-named can be carried out with strong 



back about § in. from the face of the wood- 
work ; the inside is lathed and plastered,' or 
it may be of wood framing, with rough brick 
nogging between the panels, and then plas- 
tered on the front of the bricks, also on the 
outside of the framing as before. 



206 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



Old-fashioned Half-timbered Gable. 

Figs. 726 to 729 show part of the half- 
timber work for a house, the design being 
based on old-fashioned examples. The 
gable projects, and is supported by the joists, 
which overhang and are tenoned into the 



should be set back 1 in. to 1J in. from the 
face of the posts. The members of the 
framing should be grooved to receive the 
plaster panel. The gable bargeboard is cut 
out of 2-in. stuff and chamfered. Fig. 726 
is a general view, Fig. 727 a front elevation, 
and Fig. 728 a vertical section. 




Fig. 726. — General View of Half-timber Gabled House based on Old Design. 



sill, and some additional support is rendered 
by the three solid wooden brackets, two 
being bolted to the posts of the porch and 
the third built into the lower masonry. A 
small projecting oriel window is supported 
on brackets as shown. The woodwork 
should be cut from sound dry balk timbers, 
mitred and tenoned together, and secured 
with f-in. oak pegs, which should project 
about 1 in. from the face. The wood fram- 
ing is shown backed with brickwork, which 



Sham Half=timber Work. 

Sham half-timber work (Figs. 730 and 
731) is formed of pieces of scantling only 
1J in. or 2 in. thick, but as wide as the 
timbers used in real half-timber work. The 
pieces are mortised and tenoned together, 
and often pinned as shown. Often the whole 
framing is set up in position, the brickwork 
carried up against it, and strips of wood or 
wooden bricks, which are fixed to the backs of 



HALF-TIMBER CONSTRUCTION. 



207 




Fig. 728. 



Fig. 727. 



Fig. 729. 

Fig. 727.— Front Elevation of Half-timber Gabled House. Fig. 728.— Vertical Section of Half-timber 
Gabled House. Fig. 729.— Section of Half-timber Gabled House through A B. 



Fig. 732.— Method 

of supporting 

Angle by Ornamental 

Wooden Corbel. 




208 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 






the members, are bonded in. Probably this the stucco or roughcast. The sham sill 
is the best method. An alternative is first is often finished off with a moulding which 



Fig. 730. — General View of 
Gable formed of Sham 
Half-timber Work. 




Fig. 731. — Conventional View 
showing Brickwork with Sham 
Half-timber Work fixed to it. 



to build the brickwork up, and then to fix is splayed on its upper edge for weathering, 
the wooden framing to wooden bricks or Fig. 732 illustrates a case where the side sill 
plugs. The edges are bevelled in to receive b runs forward and has its end carved. The 






HALF-TIMBER CONSTRUCTION. 



209 




Fig. 733. — Conventional View of Projecting Window supported on Moulded Brackets. 

front sill c tenons into this. 
The joists are notched out 
to project under the sill, and 
have their ends ornamented 
as shown. The angle is 
supported by the moulded 
wooden corbel a. 



Supporting Upper 
Windows. 

One of the general methods 
of supporting an upper pro- 
jecting window by shaped 
brackets fixed to the posts 
is illustrated by Fig. 733. 
A carved bracket is shown 
in Fig. 734. The fixing for 
the corbels or brackets is 
obtained by housing the back 
edge into the posts about 
2 in. ; where there are no 
posts below the projecting 
window, the brackets are 
built into the wall. 




Fig. 734. — Pierced and Carved Bracket for 
supporting Window. 



210 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



Gable Treatment: Panelling, 
Bargeboards, etc. 

Fig. 735 shows the upper portion of a 
gable and part of the side of a half-timbered 



in Fig. 736. In the case of the two upper 
storeys in the projecting gable of a house 
(Fig. 737), the first floor portion is foimed of 
timber work, with brick or one of the other 
genera] fillings. The outside is covered with 




Fig. 735.— Design for Gable End and Side of House based on Old Examples. 



house, with posts, sill, transoms, and intertie, tiles, which are fixed to oak laths (see Fig- 

the panelling being partly filled in with 738). Half -timber work similar to what 

ornamental woodwork. The design is based has already been explained forms the wall- 

upon a good old example. The treatment ing of the attic or second floor. Figs. 739 

of the upper portion of a small gable is shown to 756 are designs for bargeboards. 



HALF-TIMBER CONSTRUCTION. 



211 



Fig. 736.— Method of finishing Upper 
Portion of Small Gable. 




Fig. 737.— Gabled Front of House 

with First Floor of Timber Work 

Tiled, and with Upper Storey of 

Half-timber Work. 



212 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



Fig. 738.— 

General View of 

Timber Work and 

Tiling. 




Fig. 744. 



Fig. 739. — Bargeboard Ornamented and Chamfered. Fig. 740.— Section of Bargeboard on A B 
(Fig. 739). Fig. 741. — Section showing Joint of Bargeboard. Fig. 742. — Elevation of Barge- 

board Moulded and Dentils. Fig. 743. — Section of Bargeboard through D D (Fig. 742). Fig. 

744. — Section of Jointing of Bargeboard (Fig. 743). 



HALF-TIMBER CONSTRUCTION. 



213 



Fig. 747.— Horizontal Section 

through Bargeboard and Drop 

Pendant. 



Fig. 746. — Section 

through Bargeboard 

on E F (Fig. 745). 




Fig. 751.— Apex of Shaped and Chamfered 
Bargeboard. 



Fig. 749. — Section through 
G H (Fig. 748). 



214 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 





Fig. 753. — Horizontal 

Section through Bargeboard 

and Finial. 



Fig. 752. — Apex Ends of Bargeboards 

with Dentils and Moulded with 

Drop Pendant. 




Fig. 755.— Sectional 
Elevation of Bargeboard. 



Fig. 754. — Gothic Design of 
Bargeboard. 



Fig. 756. — Enlarged Detail of Upper 

Part of Gothic Bargeboard (portion 

of Fig. 756). 




GANTRIES, STAGING AND SHORING. 



Buildei's Gantry. 

A gantry, forming a temporary wooden 
staging, erected over a public footway, is an 
elevated basis from which building opera - 



may be spaced out into spans ranging from 
6 ft. to 10 ft. in the length of the gantry, and 
into one or two bays in the width from 
building line to kerb. The timber gener- 




Fig. 757.— Front Elevation of Two Bays~of Builder's Gantry. 

tions are conducted. A gantry also has in ally used for standards and heads is square, 
many cases to carry all the front scaffolding but commonly any section, from 9 in. by 
of the building ; such an instance is illus- 3 in. up to 12 in. by 12 in., is used. In the 
trated by Figs. 757 and 758. The bays accompanying illustrations the sections used 

215 



216 



CARPENTRY AND JOINER 



are : — Fender a, 12 in. by 12 in. ; sole 
pieces b, 8 in. by 4 in. ; uprights c and heads 
d, 8 in. by 8 in. ; joists e, 9 in. by 3 in. ; 
struts p, 4 in. by 3 in. ; sheeting g, 9 in. 
by 3 in., or 9 in. by 1| in. (see h) ; guard 
frame J, 4 in. by 2 in. ; guard boarding k, 
6 in. by f in. ; cleats l, 9 in. by 4 in. by 3 in. ; 
handrail m, 4 in. by 3 in. ; and impost N, 
8 in. by 4 in. The dogs are out of f-in. 
square iron (see Figs. 760 and 761). 




Fig. 758. — Sectional Elevation of Builder's 
Gantry. 

Erecting the Gantry. — In erecting the 
gantry, the practice is to first lay down 
the sole pieces, then set out the position of 
the standards on them. These standards 
are then cut off to the required length, allow- 
ing for the difference in level owing to the 
fall of the footway. The uprights are now 
placed in position, dogged to the sole pieces, 
and temporarily braced with scaffold boards 
or any other handy material. The heads 
are next laid on the uprights and dogged to 
them ; the bridging joists are thrown across 
the heads and spiked at from 15-in. to 2-ft. 



centres. Those coming immediately 
the uprights are dogged to the heads 




Fig. 759. 



•Enlarged View of Impost Piece of 
Builder's Gantry. 



those shown at Fig. 761 (sometimes known 
as "bitches"). The gantry may now be 
braced as shown in Figs. 757 and 758, the 





Fig. 760. — Dog used for Fig. 761. — Bitch used for 
Builder's Gantry. Builder's Gantry. 

latter showing three different methods of 
cutting the braces in general use. Fig. 759 
illustrates an impost piece, used for the pur- 



Fig. 762 




Fig. 763. 



Fig. 762.— Method of Finishing End of Fender of 

Builder's Gantry. 

Fig. 763. — Enlarged View of Cleat for Builder's 

Gantry. 

pose of giving a greater bearing surface 
where a joint occurs in the head. Fig. 757 



GANTRIES, STAGING, AND SHORING. 



217 



! illustrates two methods of sheeting. If the 
I 9-in. by 3-in. sheeting be used, then the 
| whole area of the platform should, previous 
to laying the deals, be covered with tarred 
felt, to prevent water percolating through 
to the annoyance of the public. Or, if 
double sheeting scaffold boards be used, the 



contact with it will glide off ; this is a very 
desirable precaution. 

Dogs. — Figs. 760 and 761 are the types 
of dogs used in the above class of work. 
They run from 12 in. to 18 in. in length, 
and with points from 2 in. to 3 in. long. 
That shown at Fig. 760 is used for heading, 




Fig. 764. — Conventional View of Gantry. 



joints, both lateral and heading, should be 
lapped. The platform is then sanded, and 
the sand worked into the joints with a broom. 
The guard frame is then fixed and boarded 
to the height shown at Figs. 757 and 758. 
The fender may now be laid in the gutter 
and dogged to the uprights, and the handrail 
fixed to cleats between the upright, at 
from 3 ft. to 3 ft. 6 in. from the ground. 
Fig. 762 shows how the end of the fender 
should be cut so that any vehicle coming in 

10 



lateral, and shoulder joints, and that at 
Fig. 761 (which is made with its points dl 
right angles to each other, and, as already.? 
remarked, is sometimes known as a " bitch ") 
is used in positions where it holds more 
effectively than the other, such as the fender 
to the uprights and the joists to the heads, 
etc. They are made rights and lefts, or, as 
it is often termed, in pairs. Fig. 763 is a 
view of a cleat as spiked to the upright to 
receive the thrust of the strut. 



218 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



r-.1~i 




JL 



Head 9 a 9' 



SrKUTS 7X7 



Standards 9X9' 





d£ 



Sleeper 9X9 



iFen der tg*!2 



Fig. 765. — Elevation of Gantry. 




Fig. 767.— Conventional Detail at Head of Post. 



Fig. 769.— View of Straining Piece and Strut 
butting against it. 




n 



£. 



1 ¥ Boarding 



Fig. 766. — Section through Gantry. 

Another Gantry. 

Figs. 764 to 766 are illustrations of a gantry 
for use over a pavement 8 ft. wide and with 
staging 12 ft. from the ground, A con 
ventional sketch of the gantry is given at 
Fig. 764, and views of the necessarv joints 
by Figs. 767 to 769. 




Fig. 768. — View showing Cleats supporting 
Posts. 






GANTRIES, STAGING, AND SHORING. 



219 



Builder's Staging-. 

A portion of an important specimen of 
J builder's staging is shown in front and 
| side elevation respectively by Figs. 770 and 
I 771. Staging of similar design has been used 



9 in. by 9 in., according to the weight, number 
of stages, and strain brought upon it. The 
whole is braced by 7-in. by 2-in. to 
9-in. by 3-in. scantlings. The upper part 
of one bay is framed out as shown at a in 





Fig. 770.— Elevation of Builder's Staging. 

for many important buildings in different 
parts of the country. It is particularly 
serviceable for supporting heavy blocks of 
stone, girders, and other materials. Of coursei 
the design in each case must be modified 
to meet requirements, but the illustrations 
will give a general idea of this kind of 
structure. The principal members would 
be of whole timbers from 6 in. by 6 in. to 



Fig. 771. — Sectional Elevation on Line C C 
(Fig. 770). 

the illustrations, for the purpose of support- 
ing a travelling hoisting apparatus, so that 
materials, etc., can be taken direct from the 
vans in the street and delivered on to either 
of the projecting platforms below. The 
conventional view (Fig. 772) will make 
clear the general arrangement of the various 
members. 



220 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY 




GANTRIES, STAGING, AND SHORING. 



221 



Derrick Tower Gantry. 

A general view of one of tliese is given at 
Fig. 773. There are now very 'few large 
buildings erected without the aid of this 
form of gantry, and it is gradually super- 
seding other forms, on account of the follow- 
ing considerations : Occupying a small 
space, by the double movement of the jib, 
material can be raised from the ground on 



usually built of baulk timber, whereas the 
towers, etc., are principally built of 7-in. 




Fig. 773. — General View of Derrick Tower Gantry. 



one side of the building, and deposited battens or 9-in. deals. There are three or 

direct in its proper position on an opposite four towers, but usually only three. They 

side. The cost of erecting is low compared are about 6 ft. square, and are so arranged 

with other kinds of stagings, which are that lines joining at the centre of the plan of 



222 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



each tower form an isosceles triangle. Each 
tower has four posts, formed either of three 
7-in. by 2 J-in. battens, or three 9-in. by 3-in. 
deals (Fig. 774) bolted together, the layers, of 
course,breaking joint. Transoms, 8 ft.to 10 ft. 
apart, of similar scantlings, connect the posts 



material ; thus the back is anchored down. 
The front or king tower has a standard 
through the centre of its whole length, which 
is held to the posts by bracing. This stan- 
dard is to give additional strength, for the 
support of the machinery of the crane, etc. 




Fig. 774. — View of Timber Foundation and a Bottom Bay of an Anchor Tower. 



by being bolted to them. The spaces be- 
tween the transoms are braced as illus- 
trated. Each tower rests on a double plank 
foundation (Fig. 774). In the two back or 
anchor towers the platforms and foundation 
planks (see Fig. 775) are connected together 
by means of a strong chain, the lower bay 
being loaded with bricks or other heavy 



The upper ends of the towers are connected 
by trussed girders, as illustrated, the heads 
and sills being about 9 in. by 4 in. and the 
braces and struts 4 in. by 4 in., the whole 
being held together by f-in. or f-in. bolts 
passing through the heads and sills, and 
thus connecting them. The towers are often 
tied together by bracing. 



GANTRIES, STAGING, AND SHORING. 



223 



^ 



in connection with the construction of dock 
and other similar work. The illustration 
represents a gantry about 25 ft. high, 18 ft. 
clear between the sides of the framing. 



^ 



Fig. 775.— Half Plan of Platform, and Half Plan 
of Timbers under Planking. 




Fig. 776.— Conventional View of a Movable Gantry to support Traveller. 



Movable Gantry to Support Traveller. The beams for SU p porting the rails are 34 ft., 

A gantry of this description is illustrated allowing the traveller to work on the out- 

at Fig. 776. These are used principally side of the side frames when required. 



224 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



These are trussed with lj-in. tension rods 
as shown. The main members are 12 in. 
by 12 in., braces a 10 in. by 12 in., internal 
braces 10 in. by 8 in., braces from the rail 
beams to the posts 8 in. by 6 in., sills 14 in. 
by 12 in. The principal joints are secured 
together by straps and bolts as illustrated. 
The traveller, being engineer's work, is 
omitted. 

Gantry for Traveller. 

Fig. 777 illustrates a form of gantry use- 
ful for lifting heavy blocks of masonry re- 



Window Stand. 

Figs. 778 and 779 show the construction 
of a stand for the window of a private 
house. This will seat thirty persons, in 
a space of 8 ft. by 7 ft. 3 in. Every 
precaution must be taken, in erecting these 
stands, to ensure absolute safety and 
stability. County Council and other officials 
are, quite justifiably, most stringent in 
their demands for proper and safe struc- 
tures ; and no fear need be entertained 
upon this head if the structures here d 
scribed are carefully erected as shown. 




Fig. 777.— General View of a Gantry for Traveller. 



quired in building thick walls. To allow 
of free movement of the blocks, intermediate 
bracing is not obtainable, therefore this has 
to be arranged for at the outside as shown. 
This kind of gantry is usually built of baulk 
timber from 8 in. by 8 in. upwards, according 
to the height and strength required. The 
feet of the outer braces are frequently bolted 
to stakes driven firmly in the ground as 
indicated in' Fig. 777, which gives a general 
view, in which the principles of construction 
are shown with sufficient clearness to render 
further description superfluous to the prac- 
tical builder. 



3 a 

ns. 



Stands for Spectators. 

In Figs. 780 and 781, which illustrate 
stand to accommodate about 1,000 persons, 
the lettering is explained as follows : 
a, Brace shouldered over half thickness ; 
B, braces halved together ; c, brace cut in 
between principals ; d, short tenon ; e, 
tenon mortised through and wedged ; f, 
brace bolted on face of principal ; G, bearers 
mortised and tenoned together and pinned ; 
h, bearer mortised into raking beam and 
pinned ; I, rail dovetailed to post ; J, post 
mortised to receive tenon on raking beam 



GANTRIES, STAGING, AND SHORING. 



225 



XT 



Sl== 






™S§2 



i-ls%= llti ftfi « 






>o 



J 



O d 



K — 




10* 



226 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 




.1 

Ph 

o 



o 
oo 
t- 

fab 



GANTRIES, STAGING, AND SHORING. 



227 




and wedged ; k, post halved 
on to raking strut ; l, rail 
halved to centre posts. 

The stand is 70 ft. long, and 
will contain twenty rows of 
seats, which are 18 in. high 
and 22 in. wide. The princi- 
pals, which will be nine in 
number, equally spaced, are 
framed together, as shown, 
with cross and raking braces. 
The cross braces are shown in 
Fig. 781, in which the opening 
marked y will occur between 
each pair of principals, and 
also between the intermediate 
principals situated nearer the 
centre of stand, which are 
cut in between in the same 
manner and bolted to the 
uprights. The other braces 
shown in the back view will 
be fixed on the raking strut 
x in Fig. 780. Where a stand 
is fixed between two walls, 
no side struts are required ; 
but when it is fixed -in the 
open, good strong raking 
struts are wanted at each 
end, firmly secured to the 
raking beam with bolts. The 
timber throughout should be 
of the soundest. The raking 
beam and the uprights should 
be 11 in. by 4 in. ; the braces 
may be 9 in. by 4 in. ; sole 
pieces, 9 in. by 4 in. ; framed 
bearers, 4 in. by 4 in. ; seats, 
two 11-in. by 3-in. planks, 
well spiked to bearers. The 
timbering at the back is run 
up to prevent spectators from 
falling, and an awning can be 
fixed to it. The handrail 
newels are bolted to the side 
of the raking beam. A similar 
but smaller structure, might 
be made to provide more 
comfortable seating accom- 
modation, the seats being 
26 in. instead of 22 in., 
thus giving more room for 
the feet. 



228 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



X4IMOULDED 

CAST /IRON 

GUTTER 




Fig. 782.— Part Elevation for Grand Stand for Sports Ground. 



5-2|'.0x2 f .0x6?Y0RK 



PC. CONCRETE 




REFRESHMENTS 



GROUNC 



Fig. 783.— Plan of Grand Stand for Sports Ground. 



Grand Stand for Sports Ground. 

Fig. 782 shows part elevation, Fig. 783 
a plan, and Fig. 784 a section of a stand, 
192 ft. long by 19 ft. wide, with seating 
accommodation for one thousand spectators. 
The stand is constructed entirely of timber, 
trussed and braced as necessary to make a 
perfectly safe structure. Twenty trusses 
are framed as shown in Fig. 784, and tied 
together with raking braces, forming the 
entire length of the stand. Each post in 
the truss stands on a Portland cement 
concrete base, 2 ft. by 1 ft. 6 in. by 1 ft. 6 in. 
The seating and floor are carried upon 9-in. 
by 3-in. deals, spaced between the trusses, 
and with 4J-in. by 3-in. framed bracketing. 
The floor is composed of lj-in. wrought-one- 
side boarding, the risers of 1-in. floorboards. 
The seats are of 11-in. by lj-in. wrought 
pitchpine boards with rounded edges. The 
front of the stand is matchboarded on 3-in. 
by 2-in. wrought framing, with a moulded 
capping. The usual offices, with refresh- 



x4;mouj.oecv 

GUTTER 




Fig. 784.— Section of Grand Stand for Sports 
Ground. 



GANTRIES, STAGING, AND SHORING. 



229 



ment bar, etc., etc., are provided ; 
and a space called the press box 
is set apart for reporters. The 
seats are reached by nights of 
steps, as shown. The roof is 




13 



Fig. 786. — Side Elevation of Portable Gallery. 



230 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 




Fig. 787.— Back Elevation of Portable Gallery. 



and finished with handrail to the rake of 
the seating. The stand is covered with 
corrugated -iron sheeting, No. 16 gauge, 




Fig. 788. -Enlarged View of Mortice and Tenon 
Joints at A (Fig. 786). 



screwed into position. In Fig. 783, the 
letters rbo indicate reserved box over ; 
and p B o, press box over. 

Portable Gallery. 

A portable gallery, suitable for a public 
hall or other similar building, is illustrated 
by Figs. 785 to 791. The structure is one 
that can be erected and taken to pieces with 
little trouble, and the materials can be stored 
away until again required. The size and 
form of the gallery will, of course, vary with 
the requirements to be fulfilled; but the 
method of framing set out below should be 
strictly observed, for the safety of the struc- 
ture depends on the care with which this part 
of the work is carried out. The framing 
should be properly mortised and tenoned, 
and in some parts lap-jointed, as shown in 
Figs. 785 to 789. The tenons that go 
through should be wedged into their respec- 
tive mortices; in other cases, the joints 
should be secured by bolts and nuts. Butter- 
fly nuts will be very useful, as they are 
readily adjusted. The joints at A and b 
(Fig. 786) are shown in detail by Figs. 788 
and 789 respectively. Each piece of fram- 
ing should be properly braced (see Figs. 785 






GANTRIES, STAGING, AND SHORING. 



231 



and 786), and should be again well tied 
together by braces as shown in Figs. 785 
and 787. It will be observed that these 
parts are notched and lapped, as little as 
possible of the wood being cut away, so that 
the framing may not be weakened more 
than is absolutely necessary. The main 
standards should be about 9 ft. apart, as 
shown ; the standards between these need 
not, for ordinary purposes, have more than 
one brace, which is indicated by dotted lines 
(Fig. 785). This intermediate standard is 
intended to support the boarding forming 



with an iron pin or bolt. Suitable sizes of 
timber will be 4 in. by 2 in. for the smaller 




Fig. 789.— Enlarged View of Joints at B 
(Fig. 786). 

the staging. If the gallery is for children, 
triangular pieces cut out of 11-in. by 2-in. 
stuff, and firmly secured by nails, will be 
suitable (see Figs. 785, 786, and 790) ; but 
if it is intended for adults, greater height 
and breadth will be required, and it will be 
necessary to frame the supports for boarding 
of 2-in. by 2J-in. stuff, as shown at Fig. 791. 
These supports should be halved together and 
stub-tenoned into shallow mortices (Fig. 
791), and firmly secured by nails. A simple 
method of securing the boarding is shown 
at Fig. 790. On the under side, ledges are 
nailed so as to clip on each side of the sup- 
port ; then by boring holes, as shown at 
a and a', these ledges can be held together 




Fig. 790. — Enlarged View of Triangular Support, 

and Method of connecting it to 

Boarding. 




Fig. 791. — Frame Triangular Support. 

braces, and 4 in. by 3 in. for the larger 
braces. 

Shoring. 

Shoring may be described briefly as tem- 
porary supports for walls that are considered 



232 




CARPENTRY AND JOINERY 

rl 




Fig. 792.— Single Strut Raking Shore. 

unsafe, or for girders, etc., in course of erec- 
tion or repair. The three most typical 
kinds of shoring are raking, horizontal, and 



Fig. 793.— Detail of Head of Strut. 

dead shores. Every other kind of shoring 
appears to be an adaptation of one or other 
of these three kinds. In shoring and under- 
pinning, probably as much as in any other 





Fig. 794.— Foot of Strut with Groove for 
Tightening Up. 




Fig. 795.— Triple System Raking Shore. 



Fig. 796.— Raking Shore. 






GANTRIES, STAGING, AND SHORING. 



233 



branch of the building trade, a ripe experi- 
ence is essential to success. It is necessary 
to be thoroughly prepared for any emer- 
gency that may arise ; for it is only when 
the cutting away is actually commenced 
that it becomes possible to find out exactly 
what circumstances have to be met. The 
first — and the most important — thing is to 
secure a solid base to shore from. If this is 
not obtained, the support given, or supposed 
to be given, is a deceit. There may be a 
cellar at the point where the shores have 
to be erected. If a strong wall of the cellar 
is not available at a suitable point, then the 
point of support must be found outside on 
the pavement or roadway. If it is earthy 
ground, try it with a crowbar. Ifmay be 
solidified to a certain extent by ramming, 
or thick planks may be placed to form a 
solid platform. 

Raking Shores. — The most simple type of 
raking shore is that consisting of only one 
principal strut, as shown in Fig. 792. It is 
erected thus : — At a little way down, usually 
at about 2 ft. from one end of the " wall- 
piece," a hole, rectangular in shape, is cut 
to take the " needle " ; and when the wall- 
piece is in position, the needle fits into a 
hole in the wall made to receive it by re- 
moving a half -brick. The needle also pro- 
jects on each side of the wall-piece to receive 
the head of the principal strut. To counter- 
act the upward thrust of the shore, a cleat is 
nailed over the needle. These details are 
shown more clearly in Fig. 793. A secondary 
strut, as illustrated, is necessary. The sole 
piece or footing block is a timber balk let 
into the ground, and a cleat is nailed on that 
also to keep the foot of the shore from slip- 
ping. In soft soils a little timber platform is 
placed to receive the sole piece indicated in 
Fig. 795. Sometimes wedges are driven in 
at the foot of the principal strut, but the 
heavy hammering necessary to drive them 
home is likely to defeat the purpose for which 
the shore is being erected. The more 
approved method of tightening up is to cut 
a groove in the foot of the shore (Fig. 794), 
and gradually lever it into position. The 
most common type of raking shore is that 
shown in Fig. 795, which is really a triple 
system on the same principle as that shown 
by Fig. 792. The illustration therefore 



explains itself in the light of the foregoing 
description. The top and middle shores are 
called top and middle rakers respectively ; 
the underneath one of all is the bottom 
shore. This arrangement has to be strength- 
ened by more than one secondary strut, 
on account of the length of the top raker, 
and for this purpose pieces of timber are 
brought right back to the wall and nailed 
to the shores and wall-piece as shown at a 
in Fig. 795. In the still more intricate 
system of four shores sometimes seen, the 
topmost strut is called the rider shore. 

Scantlings of Shoring Timbers.— The fol- 
lowing table of shores and scantlings has 
been found useful (taking the angle of the 
shore at about 65°) : — 



Height of Wall up to 


Number of 
Shores. 


Scantling. 


15 ft. to 30 ft 

40 ft 

50 ft. and beyond 


2 
3 

4 


6" X 6" 
8" X 8" 
9" X 9" 



Beyond 50 ft., if the distance apart between 
each system exceeds 12 ft., the scantling of 
each shore should be 12 in. by 9 in. 

Erecting a Raking Shore. — Let it be 
assumed that a building requires support, 
and that raking shores are in this case most 
suitable. The work can be carried out 
according to the following directions given 
by Mr. H. A. Davey in a paper read in 1899 
at the British Institute of Certified Carpen- 
ters. All the window openings must be 
strutted, and care must be taken that the 
brickwork is not jarred more than is abso- 
lutely unavoidable. Next find out the 
heights of the floors and the thickness of the 
wall, and make a rough sketch, to any scale, 
of a vertical section of the wall. The next 
step is to decide where to pitch the foot of 
the shores, and great care must be taken 
in making this selection ; for the shores, 
should the footblock yield to their pressure, 
would become a source of danger instead 
of a support. Old drains and vaults will 
probably give most trouble in this respect, 
but everything must be made solid before 
the shore is put into position. In the case 
of a vault, Mr. Davey found the most satis- 
factory treatment was to run the shore 



234 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 






through the crown to firm ground. Old 
drains can, as a rule, be either cleared away 
or filled in. The angle the shore should 
make with the horizon is generally decided 
by the width of the pavement ; but assuming 
that there is no distance given, then, to 
obtain the maximum thrust, the shore would 
have to be inclined at an angle of 45° with 
the ground ; but there are two reasons 
against so large an angle : (1) The shore 
would take up too much space ; (2) increased 
lengths of timber would be required. It has 
been decided, therefore, that in practice the 




(this is quite near enough for all practical 
purposes), and from e draw a vertical line 
intersecting d produced at f, arid the re- 
sultant H of the forces d and c will lie be- 
tween B and F and in the direction of the 
foot of the shore ; so a line drawn from g 
to the centre of b f will be the mean of the 
directions the resultant H will take. At g 
draw a line at right angles to h, and this 
line will represent the face of the footblock. 
It will/be seen by this that the footblock 
cannot be at right angles to the shore, owing 
to the "resultant of the forces acting outside 



9x 2 




Fig. 797.— Single Flying Shore. 



Fig. 798. — View of Head of Raker and Needle. 



best angle for the top raker shall be between 
60° and 70° (see Fig. 796). Draw the face 
of wall, position of joists and wall plate on 
face of wall, draw a line from a making an 
angle of 60° with the ground line ; on each 
side of this line set off half the thickness of 
the shore (assuming whole timber is being 
used, which should always be the case), 
and where the centre line intersects the 
wall plate at B draw lines to represent the 
needle, and cleat nailed above it ; this 
finishes the head of the shore for the present. 
Now discover the angle the footbiock should 
make with the shore. Draw lines c and d 
to represent the horizontal and vertical 
forces acting at the back of the wall and 
opposite the head of the shore, assume the 
centre of gravity of the shore to be at e 



the shore. The shore should | be levered 
into its place with a crowbar, and fixed to 
the footblock with iron dogs. The practice 
of driving wedges in with a sledge-hammer 
is most dangerous, and no man understand- 
ing the nature of the work would run such 
a risk. Sometimes when the building is 
very high it is necessary to put up the top 
raker in two pieces. The top piece is then 
called a rider, but it is much better in one 
piece if it can be managed, on account of 
the objection to wedging. Three or ^ four 
pieces of 1-in. boarding are nailed to the 
sides of the shores and wall plate, to hold 
them together and to act as struts and ties. 
For this reason all the shores in a system 
should be of the same size. The distance 
between the shores should not be more than 



GANTRIES, STAGING, AND SHORING. 



235 



about 12 ft. ; but this depends on the posi- 
tion of the piers, as there must always be a 
good abutment for the head of the shore. 
Mr. Davey does not recommend putting the 
shores close together at the bottom, for the 



Horizontal or Flying Shores. — Horizontal 
or flying shores are used when a house is 
taken down in a terrace, and the adjoining 





Fig. 801.— Detail of Joint of Flying 
Shore at B (Fig. 799). 



Fig. 799. — Elevation of Double Flying Shore. 





Fig. 802.— Detail of Joint of Flying 
Shore at D (Fig. 799). 



Wedoes. 
Straining Piece 6x3 



Fig. 800.— Details of Joints of Flying Shore at 
A (Fig. 799). 

reason that if the bottom shore has to be 
removed first, which is often the case, it is a 
difficult matter if they are close together, 
whereas by leaving a space of about 6 in. or 
8 in. and cutting in a block, it is quite easy 
to remove any one shore without interfering 
in any way with the others in the system. 




Fig. 803.— Detail of Flying Shore at C 
(Fig. 799). 

walls require supporting, a clear way being 
required underneath. Text-books gener- 
ally limit the length to about 32 ft., because 
fir timber is not easily obtained longer ; but 



236 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



pitchpine may be obtained in 70-ft. lengths, 
so that if flying shores are the best for the 
purpose, there is no need to trouble about 
the length. Flying shores are superior to 
raking shores, because their thrust is imme- 
diately opposite the disturbing force. The 
most common type of flying or horizontal 
shore is that shown in Fig. 797. For detail 
of the joint between needle and strut see 
Fig. 798. In a case where two houses of 
18-ft. frontage, each in a terrace, have been 
pulled down, and shoring is required for 
supporting the adjoining houses on each 
side, the strut just shown, or, preferably, 
the one shown by Fig. 799, would be suit- 
able. The joint shown at Figs. 798 and 800 
is to be preferred for this, and frequently 
the struts are simply butted against cleats, 
as shown at Fig. 800 ; these should be 
housed-in as well as being spiked to the 
wall-piece as indicated. The method of 
wedging and connecting the joints with dog- 
irons and straps is shown by Figs. 801 to 
803. It is best, where practicable, to have 
the horizontal shores cut just tight between 
the wall plates, but should they be a little 
short, a pair of folding wedges may be 
driven between one end of each shore and 
the wall- piece. 

Flying Shores for Buildings of 
Unequal Heights. 

The examples of flying shores that have 
just been illustrated are in general use for 
buildings that are of equal, or nearly equal, 
heights. When the buildings are not about 
the same height the shores are usually of a 
special design more or less complicated to 
suit each particular requirement of the work 
to be executed. Figs. 804, 805, and 806 
show three systems which are somewhat 
similar to those generally illustrated as suit- 
able for cases where it is necessary to sup- 
port a high house by means of a flying shore 
against a lower house. The spans would not 
be so great as is shown in Fig. 807, which is 
a typical case of shoring up the side of a 
five-storey house, standing in a narrow street, 
the traffic of which must not be obstructed 
by raking shores. On the opposite side of 
the street is a house that has to be used for 
support ; this being two storeys lower, care 



Fig. 804.— Flying Shore for Houses 

of unequal Heights over a Narrow 

Space. 




Fig. 806.— Inclined Flying Shore with 
Raking Strut and Braces. 



GANTRIES, STAGING, AND SHORING. 




23 1 ; 



Fig. 807. — Flying Shores over Thoroughfare between Two Houses of unequal Heights. 



238 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



must be taken to distribute as much as pos- 
sible the thrusting force of the shores so as 
to prevent injury to the supporting house. 
It will be seen by examining the illustra- 



ing points e, f, and G ; in the same way, if 
there is a pressure against any or all of the 
points a, b, c, and d, the pressure is also 
transmitted to the same points. To carry 
out effectively this system of distributing 
the pressure, large cleats are bolted to the 
horizontal timbers to form a firm abutment 
for the feet of the struts. The timber for the 




Fig. 808.— Elevation of Dead Shoring for con- 
verting Ground Storey of Small House 
into Shop. 

tion that the bracing and strutting has been 
arranged so that when the wall of the higher 
house exerts a pressure at either one of the 
points a, b, c, or d, this pressure against the 
lower house is transmitted to the three bear- 



Fig. 809.— Section on Line X Z (Fig. 808). 

main members would vary from 5 in. to 
9 in. by 8 in. according to the span, and the 
amount of the thrust would be a necessary 
factor for special consideration in each case. 
The braces and struts would be proportionate 
to the size of the other members. 



GANTRIES, STAGING, AND SHORING. 



239 



Vertical or Dead Shores. 

Vertical or dead shores are in general use 
for the following cases : (1) When the 
foundations of a building have given way 
and it is necessary to support the walls by 
shoring in sections so as to underpin them 
during the renewal of the foundations. (2) 
When the ground storey of a private house 
is converted into a shop, the upper part 
of the house is supported by shoring until 
the bressummer is fixed in its place and the 
new brickwork built upon it to support the 
old wall. (3) Where it is desired to raise 
the front of a shop, then it is necessary to 
support the upper part of the structure 
whilst a new bressummer or girder is being 
fixed in position so that it can carry the wall 
above. In larger and more important classes 
of buildings, which range from 'three storeys 
high upwards, it is usual, in addition to 
dead shores, to use raking shores, with the 
object of steadying the walls, as well as 
giving a certain amount of support, and thus 
to minimise the chance of accident to the 
building. 

Dead Shoring for Converting Private 
Dwelling into Shop. 

Figs. 808 and 809 represent a usual 
method of shoring in the common case of 
converting the ground storey of a small 
private dwelling house into a shop. In many 
cities, for such small jobs as this, raking 
shores are not used. The leading methods 
of procedure may be summarised as follows : 
The windows are strutted by pieces of timber 
about 3 in. by 3 in. or 3 in. by 4 in. The 
sill shown at a is supported on the ground 
floor, and a head is put plumb over this 
against the ceiling, as shown at b (Figs. 
808 and 809) ; three or more vertical posts 
are cut to a length to fit tightly between the 
head and the sill. Sometimes the posts are 
cut a little short so as to allow of a pair of 
oak wedges to be driven between the post 
and sill ; in this way the dead shores or 
posts support the floor, and thus the front 
wall is relieved of its weight. Holes are 
then cut through the front wall about 6 in. 
or a foot above the floor, for the insertion of 
needles n (Figs. 808 and 809). It is usual 
to put a needle under each pier between 



openings, but when the piers are very wide 
it is sometimes necessary to insert two 
needles, as shown in the illustrations. The 
needles are supported by dead shores at 
each end s (Figs. 808 and 809), both inside 
and outside the building. These shores rest 
upon continuous sills, and are fixed tight 
under the needles by the insertion of oak 
wedges w. It is usual to brace the outer 
dead shores to the needle by a piece of 
scantling as shown at c. The feet and head 
of the shores are also secured to the head 
and sill by iron dogs. Next, it is usual to 
remove sufficient of the brickwork to allow 
of the insertion of the bressummer which 
spans the opening and to which the floor 
joists are fixed in some one of the various 
ways. Next the walling is made good, with 
brick or stone laid in Portland cement, as far 
as this can be done without removing the 
needles ; after the new work has properly 
set the shoring is removed, and the making 
good of the wall is completed. When plac- 
ing the shores on the ground floor it should 
be carefully noted whether this is sufficiently 
strong to support the shoring. If not, part 
should be taken up and the sills bedded 
firmly on the solid earth. In the case where 
there is a basement it would be necessary 
to support the ground floor by a sill-head 
and dead shores, as shown in Figs. 808 and 
809. With small jobs, sometimes the inner 
standard supporting the needle is dispensed 
with ; pieces of square timber about 3 ft. 
long, d (Fig. 809), rest on the floor directly 
over the head b ; the inner end of the needle 
rests on these square timbers ; and if re- 
quired, pairs of wedges are driven between 
the timber and the needle, as indicated at e. 

Shoring Large Corner House for 

Converting the Ground Storey 

into Shop. 

A familiar example, but not such a 
common one as that just described, and one 
that is of much greater magnitude, is illus- 
trated by Figs. 810 to 815. A case of this 
description generally calls for the exercise 
of considerable skill and judgment, especi- 
ally if the house is an old one. Figs. x810 
and 811 show a five-storey corner house, 
with an area on the two fronts. It is shown 
shored up for the conversion of the ground 



240 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



floor into shop premises. The raking shores 
would first be erected, and it being a high 
house, there would be two rakers, and also a 
rider g to k (Fig. 811); these shores wouldvary 
in size from 6 in. by 6 in. to 7 in. by 7 in., 



should rest on a solid foundation formed by 
the solid earth. Standards marked a, b, 
would rest on this sill and carry the head b. 
In this way the ground floor would be sup- 
ported, and in its turn this would support the 




Fig. 810. — General View of Shoring to large Private House the Ground Storey of which 

is to be altered into Shop. 



according to the special requirements of the 
particular case. To give the best support 
the needles at the head of the rakers should 
be inserted just below each floor. As there is 
an area, the feet of the shores would require 
to have a foundation to rest on, f (Fig. 811) 
placed at least 2 to 3 ft. from the area 
wall. The sill in the basement, a (Fig. 811), 



sill c, the standards, the head, and, in a 
way, the whole of the first floor. Occasion- 
ally the shoring is continued through the 
floor above, and this wouldj to some extent, 
reduce the load on the needles. Next, holes 
would be cut in the walls for the insertion of 
the needles, then the first floor d (Fig. 811) 
would have a hole cut for the inner dead 



GANTRIES, STAGING, AND SHORING. 



241 



Fig. 812.— View of Head of Raker 
K (Fig. 811). 





Fig. 814.— Enlarged Detail at G 
(Fig. 811) 



Fig. 813. — Showing 

Separate Pieces at the 

Head of Raker. 



Fig. 811. — Vertical Section through 
Front Wall, showing System of 
Shoring (Fig. 810). 
11 




Fig. 815.— Enlarged Details of B, 
C, and D (Fig. 811). 



242 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



shore to pass through, and this shore would 
carry the end of the needle. The outer 
dead shore l (Fig. 811) should be long 
enough to rest on a sill bedded firmly in the 
area as shown. As a stay to these standards, 



angle of the building should be timbers of 
much greater sectional area, as they have to 
support a greater weight, and all chances of 
movement must be guarded against. Fig. 
812 is the general view of the top end of a 




Fig. 816. — Shoring required for the removal of a Capital. 




Fig. 817. — Shoring necessary when an Arched Stone has to be renewed. 



a raking strut e could be birdsmouthed 
on to a plate and its head cut to fit against 
the shore, which would have a cleat fas- 
tened to it. When these do not fit tight 
against the walls of the area, blocks should 
be placed between as shown at m (Fig. 811). 
The needles and the standards carrying the 



raker at its connection with the needle, 
the cleat, and the wall piece. Fig. 813 
shows each one of these parts separated. 
Fig. 814 is an enlarged detail at g (Fig. 811), 
showing the wedges, etc., at the foot of the 
rider. Fig. 815 gives enlarged details at 
b, c, and d respectively in Fig. 811 






GANTRIES, STAGING, AND SHORING. 



243 



Shoring an Arcade. 

Fig. 816 shows the method of shoring 
required when it is necessary to remove 
the capital of a column a. Sole plates 
are cut between the bases of the columns 
on each side of the one from which the 
cap is to be removed. Ribs cut from 
6 -in. planks are fitted into the arch, the 
edges fitting perfectly to the soffits ; the 
butt joints, cut radiating with the centre, 
must also fit perfectly, and the planks are 
held together by iron dogs ; or the joint 
may be crossed with pieces of lj-in. deal, as 



vary according to the weight above the 
arches. If there are very high and heavy- 
clerestory and roof, an additional shore 
might be necessary, but should be kept 
almost vertical. Fig. 817 shows the timber- 
ing necessary when one of the arch stones, 
as at c, is to be cut out. Fig. 818 shows an 
elevation, and Fig. 819 a section of the 
timbering necessary for the removal of the 
shaft d. The capital is kept in position by 
the collar e, which is fitted round it and 
bolted together, and in turn fixed to the 
shores. Struts f and shores g are cut tight 
under the collar. The centering in each 




Fig. 818. — Elevation and Section of Shoring required for the removal of a Column. 



in making an ordinary centre. Stretcher 
pieces are cut tight in between the arches 
at the springing. Shores of 12-in. by 6-in. 
timber are then cut up as shown. Folding 
wedges are not used, the shore being pinched 
up tight with an iron bar ; and wiien it is 
home, pieces of timber are cut in between 
and spiked to the sole plate. The shores 
are pitched to about 85°, and sufficient 
room is allowed for the removal and the 
reinstatement of the capital. Horizontal 
pieces are fixed on each side of the shores 
at B ; these are allowed wide enough to 
scribe around the shaft, and so hold it rigid 
during the process of removal and fixing. 
The free use of iron dogs is recommended, 
and the work must be well done to ensure 
success. The size of the timbers would 



case may be made additionally secure and 
strong by the free use of braces and struts. 

Shoring the Arcade of a Church. 

This work calls for the highest skill and 
judgment. The one example here illustrated 
and described will serve to give some idea 
of the nature of this kind of work. In the 
portion of a church arcade shown by Fig. 
819 there are cracks in the masonry, indicat- 
ing a subsidence in the foundation of one or 
more of the pillars ; it is assumed that it is 
found necessary to renew the foundation. 
The first thing will be to construct strong 
centres. In the case illustrated the arch 
mouldings can be supported on three centres ; 
the middle one is constructed of stuff 7 in. 
thick, and those on each side of stuff 3 in. 



244 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 




Eh 



he 



I 

o 
m 



ho 



GANTRIES, STAGING, AND SHORING. 



245 



thick. _ So that the ribs May properly fit the 
intrados of the arches, templates made of 
J-in. boarding should be carefully scribed to 
fit ; then these should be used for making 



Fig. 821). The raking shores l h and K m 
are made to spread at the bottom, the sill 
being notched out of the solid to receive the 
square ends of these ; they are further 




Fig. 821. — Conventional View of Central Trestle and one adjacent to Pillar, also of 
Part of Centres, Collars, etc. 



the timber ribs, which are out of 7-in. by 
12-in. and 3-in. by 11 -in. stuff respectively. 
The joints between the ribs, tie, king-post, 
struts, etc., are clearly illustrated at A, B, 
and c (Fig. 823). Strong trestle shores are 
next made to the sizes and form clearly 
shown in the illustrations (especially see 



secured by fixing on cleats. The whole of 
the trestle is supported by a large timber 
sleeper 12 in. by 12 in. or more, as the case 
may demand. The object of the above 
arrangement is to obtain the necessary sup- 
port for the shoring, at sufficient distance 
from the pillar to allow ample room for its 



246 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



removal or the further shoring of it, and to 
allow sufficient space for the excavation 
necessary for the new foundation. The 



the load on the shores adjacent to the pillars, 
and obviously lessen the weight on the 
ground near the foundation. In the case 




Fig. 823. — Conventional View of Joints of Centres. 



centres are also supported in the middle by 
trestle shoring, which will take a full share of 
the load, and thus to a large extent reduce 




Fig. 822.— Conventional View of Collars to support 
the Springing of Arches. 



of ordinary earths the excavation for the 
foundation would require to be timbered 
strongly, so as to prevent any movement. 
The shoring having been placed in position, 
the centres can next be erected and forced 
home so as to fit the arch, by wedging up 
from the head pieces of the shore as in- 
dicated in the illustrations, and also the 
several parts of the centres themselves, by 
the wedges shown at d, e, f, and G (Fig. 819). 
The centres should be connected together 
by fixing blocks between them, or by bracing 
them together with pieces of scantling. As 
the centres might not directly support some 
of the stones resting on the capital, two 
collars should be made ; these are shown in 
position in Figs. 819 to 821. A conven- 
tional view of them is given at Fig. 822, 
in which the collar at h shows pieces of 



GANTRIES, STAGING, AND SHORING. 



247 



timber which have been accurately scribed 
to fit the soffit and mouldings adjacent to 
it near the springing of the arches. The 
collar at k is at right angles to h, and has 
had blocks scribed to fit the moulding and 
the front and back immediately above the 
capital. These blocks are bolted to the 
main pieces of the collars as indicated. 
The collars are made to grip firmly to the 



similar to those which have been treated, 
but of larger scantlings. 

Shoring to Railway Arch. 

The illustrations (Figs. 824 to 830) show 
the centering and strutting employed for 
shoring up two arches of a viaduct over a 
shallow river. A scaffold and staging to 




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Fig. 824. — Part Elevation of Shoring, showing Half a 
Principal, One Main Strut, etc. 



Fig. 825. — Part Transverse Section 
through Arch and Shoring on Line P. 



stonework by tightening up the iron bolts 
as shown. In heavy work, of course, it 
might be necessary to have two bolts at each 
end so as to prevent accident by the break- 
ing of one. The lower collar is supported 
on the heads of the trestle shores, and it in 
its turn supports the upper collar. If it is 
desired not to remove the capital, the collars 
would be scribed to fit the pillars immediately 
below it, in which case the collar would be 
supported by transoms fixed to the trestles. 
In this kind of shoring dogs should be freely 
used. In some cases it might be necessary 
to support the wall of the arcade on each 
side ; these shores would be somewhat 



work upon are erected, holes are cut into 
the piers at about 6-ft. centres, and wood 
corbels 9 in. by 9 in. (g and h, Figs. 824 and 
825) are set in firmly by wedging and filling 
in with Portland cement. On the upper 
corbels transoms K are placed, their centres 
being supported by the shores l. The corbels 
G support a plate M from which the shores 
are wedged. The radii and span of the 
arches being known, a full-size drawing is 
set out. The templates for the several 
pieces of ribs are next made ; they are used 
for cutting out by the bandsaw pieces of 
timber stuff for the ribs. The struts, tie- 
beam, and other members are next set out 



248 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



from the drawings and the various joints 
made. The ribs are set out and jointed 
with the tie, heads of struts and king-post. 
Each principal is now fitted together, and 
when found satisfactory each of the parts 



forced up as close as possible to the soffit of 
the arch by driving in the wedges on the 
plate n. If a lagging does not fit close, 
force it up by driving wedges under it on the 
top of the rib, the object being to make the 







Fig. 826. — General View looking from the Under Side, showing the Arrangement of the Various 

Members of the Shoring. 



joining together is worked, thus allowing 
each principal to be taken to pieces and sent 
to the job. Iron straps are provided to 
secure the principals when re-erected. Be- 
tween the plates n and the tie-beams of the 
centres, wedges are inserted. Battens are 
next placed on the ribs to form the laggings. 
Each principal and the laggings are then 



laggings take their proper share of bearing. 
To keep the centres upright, braces are fixed 
between each pair, as shown by Figs. 825 
and 826. The former figure represents a part 
transverse section through arch and shoring 
on line o p (Fig. 824), the latter a general 
view (looking from the under side) showing 
the arrangement of the various members. 



GANTRIES, STAGING, AND SHORING. 



249 




Fig. 827. — Conventional View of Joints at Foot 
of Centre at A (Fig. 824). 





Fig. 831.— Conventional View of Joints at E 

(Fig. 824), 



Fig. 830. 



Fig. 828. — Conventional View of Joints between 

Ribs and Strut at B (Fig. 824). 

Fig. 829. — Conventional View of Joints at C 

(Fig. 824). 

Fig. 830. — Conventional View of Joints at D (Fig. 

824). 



11* 



ARCH CENTERINGS. 



Setting Out for Segmental Arches. 

The wooden centerings or centres used 
for supporting brick or stone arches until 
the construction is complete, or until the 
mortar or cement is dry, are made by car- 
penters, who find it necessary to be able to 
set out the particular curve required before 
starting the actual construction of the wood- 
work. The curves for constructing the 
centres or turning-pieces, or for setting out 




Fig. 832.— Drawing Curves of Arch from a Centre. 

the voussoirs or members of segmental and 
cambered arches, can be obtained by several 
different methods. The practice, generally, 
among engineers, architects, and surveyors 
is merely to indicate the width of the open- 
ing to be spanned, and the height or rise 
above the level line of the springing at the 
abutments, and so long as the completed 
work is in conformity with such instructions 
the artisan is allowed to produce it by the 
method he is best acquainted with. Fig. 
832 shows a segmental arch nearly approach- 
ing a semicircle, and on the left-hand side 
of the figure is indicated a very common 
method of producing it. The chord of half 



the arc is drawn, and the centre of it 
measured off. The square is then applied 
to the chord, as shown, and by means of a 
straightedge a line is drawn at right angles 
to the chord, bisecting it at its centre, and 
intersecting the perpendicular line at K, 
which is the centre of the curve required. 
This method, while correct in theory, is un- 
scientific in practice, being too dependent 
on crude mechanical aids, and is not credit- 
able to an intelligent craftsman. On the 
right-hand side of Fig. 832 a better and 
more expeditious method is shown, as fol- 
lows : — First draw the line a b, and mark 
off the span ; then with A and B as centres 
mark off equal distances at E and r. With 
E and f as centres and with any radius 
greater than half the distance between them, 
draw the intersecting arcs G and H ; through 
the points of intersection draw the lines c d. 
Mark off at c the rise above the line a b, 
and, with c and B as centres, draw intersect- 
ing arcs ; a line drawn through the points 
of intersection will bisect equally the line 
B c at J, and being continued will intersect 
the line cd at k, which is the centre re- 
quired. A light deal rod and a fine bradawl 
for a pivot centre will make an excellent 
compass for this purpose, and is called a 
radius rod. 

Formula for Arch Curves. — For various 
reasons, such as the absence of anything 
upon which it can be worked out, and the 
small round-up of the curve, it is not always 
convenient to adopt the method just de- 
scribed, and in cases of this kind the mathe- 
matical formula 



Diameter = 
is extremely useful. 



J span 



f span 



rise 



+ rise 



250 



ARCH CENTERINGS. 



251 



Obtaining Radius of Segment of Circle. — 
To get the radius of any segment of a circle, 
the following rule should be committed to 
memory : — Given the span or chord line, 
and versed sine (rise), square half the chord, 
divide by the rise, and to the quotient add 
the rise. This gives the diameter ; divide 
by 2 for radius. Referring to Fig. 832 as an 
example, half chord =2 ft. 11 in. = 35 x 
35 = 1225 -r 7 = 175 + 7 = 182 4- 2 = 
91 in. = 7 ft. 7 in. radius. 




in Fig. 833, and these divisions may be sub- 
divided as indicated. The object of bi- 
secting the arcs is to get the lines radial. , 

Setting- Out Curves for Large Arches 
of Moderate Rise. 

Arches of large span and moderate rise 
cannot conveniently be struck out from 
a centre, owing to the length of the radius, 
neither can small arches that have but 
very little rise. Fig. 834 shows a method 



Fig. 835. 



Fig. 833. 



-Marking out Voussoirs without the aid 
of a Centre. 




Fig. 834. — Drawing Curves of Arch without a Centre by means of a Frame. 

Fig. 835. — Enlarged View of Apex of Frame shown in Fig. 834. 

Fig. 836. — Alternative Frame to that shown in Fig. 834. 



Setting Out Curves with Radius Rod. 

Centres for segmental arches of larger 
dimensions, and others of irregular propor- 
tions, should be struck out with a radius rod. 
After finding the radius by calculation, 
measure off the distance on the radius rod, 
and beyond this mark off the depth of the 
face of the arch. Insert the bradawl in 
these points, and draw the curves ; cut off 
a portion of the inner curve so that its 
chord is equal to the span, and draw the 
voussoirs or members. This may be done 
by dividing out either the inner or the outer 
curve, and bisecting the divisions as shown 



of drawing the curves without the aid of a 
centre. For the purpose of elucidation the 
figure necessarily shows considerable round- 
up. The span is marked off on line cd; 
the centre line a b is drawn at right angles 
to it, and the rise is marked off at a. Two 
French nails are driven in at c and d, and a 
triangular frame is made as shown, using deal 
battens about 1 in. thick for a very large 
arch ; for an arch of moderate size slate 
battens will do ; the legs touch the nails 
c d, and at the apex at the point of the rise 
a small notch is made to accommodate the 
pencil as shown at a in Fig. 835. The pencil 
being in position at a, the frame is moved 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



round as indicated by the dotted lines, care 
being taken that it is always in contact with 
the nails at c and d, and a true segment of a 
circle is then struck (Euclid, bk. iii. prop. 21). 
The frame must be altered, and the nails 
shifted to E and f to draw the outer curve. 
The voussoirs or members can be set out as 
already explained (see Fig. 833). Fig. 836 
is a much better appliance, and is arranged 
to suit the arch shown in Fig. 834 ; it is not 
so clumsy to work, and it requires a third 
nail at d; it is used in the same manner as 
the board shown in Figs. 837 and 838, and 
is identical with it. 



Fig. 837. 



rise ; parallel to the edge of the board a line 
is then drawn from point a until it inter- 
sects with the line of abutment at c, and 



Fig. 839.— Camber or Straight Arch. 

the triangular piece from c b is removed. 
Three nails are inserted at b, c, and d (Fig. 
837), and the board (known as a camber 







Fig. 838. 



V 



Ifr 



Fig. 837. —Drawing Curves of Arches with a Board. Fig. 838. — Board used in Fig. 837. 



Setting Out Curve for Camber Arch. 

Fig. 837 is an example of a camber arch 
whose members do not radiate from the 
centre of curvature, but from some point 
within it. The centre lying at some con- 
siderable distance, the members, if radiat- 
ing from it, would be so nearly parallel that 
they would offer no key. In Fig. 837 it is 
presumed that the rise is less than plank 
width, namely, 11 in. At the centre of a 
board (Fig. 838) rather longer than the span 
required, a line a b is squared equal to the 



slip) is moved round (the pencil being held 
in contact with it at point e), as shown in 
the dotted lines. As in the former case, the 
board must be altered and the nails shifted 
in order to draw the outer curve f, g, h. 
The camber slip is based on the principle 
that all angles in a segment of a circle are 
equal to one another ; so by having a long 
and wide slip tapering both ends, the 
middle pin marking the rise could be dis- 
pensed with ; but such a slip is unwieldy, as 
only half its length is of use in marking a 
centre. 






ARCH CENTERINGS. 



253 



So=called Straight Arch. 

Fig. 839 is an illustration of a so-called 
straight arch whose intrados is really cam- 
ber ; properly speaking, not less than 




Fig. 840.— Method of Setting Out Ellipse by 
Intersecting Lines. 

-| in. per foot of span. The method last 
described is about the only way in which 
this arch can be expeditiously set out. 

Setting Out Curves for Elliptical 
Arches. 

Commonly, an " ellipse " is set out from 
three centres with compasses, but a three- 



setting out true elliptic and oval arches. 
The first method, illustrated at Fig. 840, is 
almost universally used by mechanics, as 
it is easily drawn, and can be adapted to 
arches of any size. It has also the advan- 
tage that no centres are required, the inter- 
section of the lines giving the points through 




Fig. 



842.— General View of Trammel and Cross 
for Setting Out Elliptical Arches. 



which the curve passes. The transverse or 
major axis a b, and the conjugate or minor 
axis c d, being given, enclose the space by 
the parallelogram eegh. Divide the lines 
a e, e c, each into any number of equal parts 
(in this case six), draw the lines 1 1, 2 2, 3 3, 
i 4, and 5 5, and the intersection of the lines 




-Method of Setting Out Ellipse with 
Trammel. 



centred arch is not an elliptical arch — it is 
only an approximation. The true ellipse 
is obtained from an oblique section of a 
cone or cylinder, and no portion of its curve 
is part of a circle ; therefore an ellipse can- 
not be drawn by compasses or from centres. 
The following methods are for describing and 




Fig. 843. — Enlarged Detail of End of Trammel and 
Eod for Setting Out Elliptical Arches. 

will give the points in the curve for one 
quarter of the figure. Kepeat the operation 
for the other three quarters, then bend a thin 
flexible rod round the points obtained, and 
draw the curve. It is interesting to note 
that the granite arches of 50-ft. span cross- 
ing the roadway at the Tower Bridge were set 
out by this method. Although it does not 
form a perfectly true ellipse, an arch set out 
in this manner is by no means unpleasing. 



254 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 




Fig. 844.— Centre for a Stone Arch of 20-ft. Span 



Fig. 845. — View of Joint 
at A (Fig. 844). 



Another Method. — The second method of 
setting out an ellipse, illustrated by Eig. 
841, is probably the best yet devised ; it is 



LAGGING. 3*2 




Qf~~\ BOLTS 



WEDGE.3 



Fig. 846.— View of Joint at C (Fig. 844), also 
showing Method of supporting Wedges, etc. 

done by means of a trammel, which gives 
a curve by one continuous motion. The 
trammel consists of a wooden cross abcd, 
each arm. of which is slotted or grooved. 
In these grooves two small hardwood sliding 
bars are carefully fitted, so that they can 
be moved smoothly to and fro. A rod, 1, 2, 
3, provided with three adjustable trammel 



heads, is now placed in position as shown in 
the diagram. This position is obtained by 
making the distance from 2 to 1 equal to 
half the shortest diameter of the ellipse 
gh, and the distance from 1 to 3 equal to 
half the longest diameter e f. The points 




Fig. 847.— Detail of Joint at B (Fig. 844). 

of the heads are inserted into the centres of 
the sliding bars at 2 and 3, and by moving 
the rod round (the outside head having a 
pencil fitted in it) the ellipse is described 
by one continuous line. Eig. 842 shows the 
trammel in position, while Eig. 843 shows 
an enlarged detail of one end of the bar. 
The frame of the trammel is usually made 
of mahogany or some other hard wood, and 
the sliding bars are of ebony. The heads 
are similar to those used for beam com- 



ARCH CENTERINGS. 



255 



passes, and are adjusted by a screw pressing 
against the radius rod on which they slide. 




Fig. 848.— Detail of Ribs, and Joints at D and E (Fig. 844). 



The frame of the trammel is held together 
by a small wood screw at each corner. Its 
size depends, of course, upon the size of 
the ellipse to be described, but one frame 
will describe ellipses of various diameters. 



Fig. 849.— Eleva- 
tion of Four-ring 
Arch and Centre. 



Centerings for Semicircular Arches. 

Centres for semicircular stone arches, 
having generally to bear a large amount of 
weight, are usually built up of plank and 
batten scantlings, which are roughly framed 




Fig. 850.- 
Section 
through 
Centre. 



256 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



together, and fixed with bolts and dog irons, 
as indicated in the sketches. Fig. 844 shows 
a centre braced so that it is only necessary 
to be supported at each end, leaving a free 



wedges are used for raising or lowering the 
centre slightly, so as to adjust it to its exact 
position previous to building the arch ; and, 
secondly, when the arch is finished, to ease 



ZZVHMJS^ 



LAGGING 3xH 




Fig. 852.— Section through Figs. 851 and 854. 



-Isometric View of Centre at Springing, 
showing Support Wedges, etc. 



the centre from the intrados by gradually 
slackening the wedges. They also allow of 
the centre being taken down without undue 




Centre for an Elliptical Arch. 



passage underneath. The joints used are 
shown by Figs. 845 to 848. Wedges are 
placed in pairs directly between the top of 
the supports and the bottom of the centre, 
as shown by Fig. 846. In the first place, the 



vibration, which would be otherwise caused: 
Fig. 849 is the part elevation of a four-ring 
brick arch with centering, the struts of the 
latter finishing against the ribs as shown in 
the vertical section (Fig. 850). 



ARCH CENTERINGS. 257 

Centerings for Segmental Arches. Centering for Elliptical Window. 



Fig. 851 is the elevation of a rough, centre 
for a segmental arch 8 ft. wide, 2 ft. 6 in. 
rise, and 12 in. soffit. Fig. 852 is the section 
through this centre and also the elliptic 
one shown later (see Fig. 854). Fig. 853 
is an isometric view, showing wedges under 
end of centre. Close lagging is shown, but 




855. — Half Internal Elevation 
of Elliptical Window. 



frequently it would be formed so that there 
would be a space between each two strips 
of wood lagging. 

Centerings for Elliptical Arch. 

The centering shown by Fig. 854 is to 
fulfil the conditioDs laid down for the seg- 
mental arch which has been described in the 
previous paragraph, and the construction of 
the centering is similar. 



An elliptical window in brickwork may 
be built up round a centering of the kind 
shown in the half internal elevation (Fig. 855) 
and in the conventional view (Fig. 856). 
The centering is supported by the struts a, 
but sometimes, instead of these, a part ring 
of bricks, laid dry, is used, the bricks resting 




856. — Conventional View, showing Centering, 
Construction of Arch, etc. 



on the inverted ring supporting the wedges 
and centering. 

Centre for Circle = on = Circle Arch with 
Parallel Jambs and Reveals. 

Figs. 857 and 858 are elevation and plan 
of a circle-on-circle window or door opening 
in which jambs or reveals are parallel and 
the whole of the soffit of the arch is cylin- 
drical. The elevation of the centre is given 



258 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



at Fig. 859, the plan of the ribs at a, the 
plan of the laggings at b (Fig. 860), and the 
development of the soffit at c. The shapes 



the ribs and soffit as indicated at a and b 
(Fig. 860). In Fig. 859 the line of ribs is 
shown on the left, whilst the line of laggings 




. I 



Fig. 857. — Elevation of Circle-on-Circle Opening, with Soffit parallel at the Springing and 

level at the Crown. 




Fig. 858.— Plan of Soffit (Fig. 857). 



of the inner and outer ribs are identical. 
How to obtain their shapes will now be ex- 
plained. First draw the elevation of the 
centre as shown in Fig. 859, and the plans of 



is shown at the right. In the elevation, 
divide the arc into an equal number of parts, 
as a', b', etc., draw ordinates to the springing 
line, and project down to the plan of the 



ARCH CENTERINGS. 



259- 



ribs, as a, b, c, d, e, and 1. At right angles to 
the plan of the ribs, draw the ordinates, 
making them of the same lengths as those in 
the elevation ; thus a series of points is 
obtained, as c" to 1", through which the 
curve for the ribs is drawn. To obtain the 
soffit mould, divide the line of laggings into 
equal parts as o' to V, and project down to 
the plan. Through point o in the plan, 
draw the horizontal line o to 1" and mark 



Centre for Circle = on = Circle Arch with 
Radial Jambs or Reveals. 

Figs. 861 and 862 show the elevation and 
plan of a circle-on-circle window or door 
opening with radial jambs or reveals. Fig. 
863 gives the elevation of the front and back 
of the centre, at the left and right respec- 
tively. The face moulds for the ribs are 
obtained in exactly similar manner to those 



Fig. 859. — Elevation of Centre 
for Opening (Fig. 857). 




off distances on it equal to the divisions o', 
6', 5', etc., in elevation. From these points 
draw lines at right angles to o 1", and pro- 
ject from the corresponding points in the 
plan. Through the points thus obtained the 
development of the soffit may be drawn. 
After the ribs are sawn out, the edge should 
be planed in such a way that it is level at the 
top, but gradually bevels until at the spring- 
ing it is at the angle shown in the plan. 
The construction of the centre is clearly 
shown in the illustrations. 



Fig. 860.— Plan of Centre, and Geometrical 
Setting Out for Fig. 857. 

in the case illustrated by Figs. 859 and 860. 
For the development of the soffit mould, a 
separate drawing must be made as shown at 
Fig. 865. Set out the elevation and plan of 
soffit and radial lines meeting at any con- 
venient point a', divide the elevation into a 
number of equal parts as shown from 1 to 
8 (a), and project these points down to the 
plan, giving corresponding numbered points. 
From these last points draw lines radiating 
to a', these being plans of generators of the 
conoidal surfaces which are shown by the 
conventional view (Fig. 866). Projectors 
have not been drawn for the right-hand half 
of the plan, as this is exactly the same as the 
left-hand half. From points 1 to 7 in the 
elevation draw the elevation of the generators 



-260 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



meeting the line a 8 in points as shown ; at development of the front edge, set a pair of 
right angles to 1' a' draw a' 8' (c). Mark off compasses to one of the equal distances of 




Fig. 861. — Elevation of Circle-on-Circle Opening, with Soffit converging at the Springing 

and level at the Crown. 




Fig. 862.— Plan of Soffit (Fig. 861). 



distances on it exactly equal to those on 
*a (a), which give the points where the 
generators start from. This will be under- 
stood by reference to Fig. 866. For the 



the elevation, and another pair or a radius 
rod to the length of the generators. (Note, 
these are all one length.) Then using point 1 
(b) as centre, describe an arc with the com- 



ARCH CENTERINGS. 



26 1 



passes ; then with b as centre in a' 8' (c) is the^' point 2 (c). Each of the other points 
draw an arc with a radius equal to the in the development is obtained in precisely 
generators ; where these two arcs intersect the same manner, and the curve can be 



Fig. 863.— Half Outside Ele- 
vation of Ribs for Centre, 
and Half Inside Elevation 
of Ribs for same for Arck 
(Fig. 861). 




9 

Fig. 864.— Plan of Fig. 863, and 

Setting Out for True Snaps of 

Ribs. 



Fig. 867. — General View of Centres for Arcb 
(Fig. 861). 



2(i2 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



drawn in as shown. For most practical 
purposes half would be sufficient, but the 
whole has been shown. The method of 



In a segmental-on-plan centre, supports 
must be given by sturts fixed at an angle 
of 45° from the vertical side posts. 



. 



Tig. 865.— Setting Out for Development for 
Soffit of Arch. 




Tig. 866. — Conventional View 
of Conoidal Surface formed 
by Soffit of Arch. 



building up the centre with the ribs in two 
thicknesses is fully shown at Figs. 863, 864, 
and 867. And the last-named figure also 
shows the general construction of the centre, 
its support, with wedges, etc. A central 
support is not shown, but if by any means 
this can be arranged for it will be found 
advantageous. 



Centre for Opening with Converging 

Outer Reveals and Parallel Inner 

Reveals. 

At Figs. 868 and 869 are shown in elevation 
and plan the necessary centering for an 
opening with converging outer reveals and 
parallel (cylindrical) inner reveals. The 



ARCH CENTERINGS. 



263 



true geometrical working for obtaining the 
shape of the ribs and the development of 
half the inner soffit is shown, but not for the 



Fig. 868 





Fig. 870. — Conventional View of Centre 
for converging Jambs (Fig. 868). 




871. — General View of Inner Centres 
for Parallel Reveals (Fig. 868). 



Fig. 869. 

soffit with the converging reveals ; but the 
careful reader will have little difficulty if he 
note that this case is a combination of the 
two previous ones (Figs. 859 to 867), which 



Fig. 868.— Elevation of Centering for an Opening 

with External Reveals converging, the 

Internal Reveals being parallel. 

Fig. 869.— Plan of Centering, Setting Out for 

Ribs, etc. 

have been so fully described. Figs. 870 and 
871, which represent respectively a con- 
ventional view of a centre for converging 
jambs, and a general view of inner centres 
for converging reveals, will convey a clear 
idea of the method of constructing these 
centres when they are for a span of an 
ordinary sifced opening. Fig. 877 shows 
how a block may be cut to connect the 



264 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



heads of the ribs, as at a (Fig. 876) ; and 
the centre may be further strengthened by 
fixing in a tie, and bracing as indicated by 
the dotted lines. The close lagging shown is 



Centering for a Gothic = on = Circle 
Arch. 

The elevation and plan of the soffit of an 



most suitable for brickwork, but in the case arch of this description is shown at Figs. 




Fig. 873. Plan of Soffit (Fig. 872). 

of a stone arch the laggings are usually of a 872 and 873. The soffit of the arch at the 

stouter character, and put at intervals of springing converges, but finishes in a level 

2 in. or more apart, so as to support the line. Details of the geometrical setting 

stonework and tie the ribs together. out of the ribs and general construction are 



ARCH CENTERINGS. 



265 



illustrated by Figs. 871 to 877. The geo- 
metrical construction for obtaining the 



shape of the ribs would involve the same 
principles and method of working as given 



Fig. 874. //• 




Fig. 875 



874.— Half Outside and Half Inside 
Elevation of Centre for Arch 

(Fig. 872). 

875. — Plan of Centering and Setting Out 
for Ribs 



in the case of the centering for the arch shown 
in elevation and plan by Figs. 861 and 862. 
The development of the soffit mould would 
be similar. In turning a stone arch over 
the rib forming the centre it is sometimes 
found that the stonework is untrue. In 
such a case, the obvious remedy is to pack 
with slightly tapered wedges. 



12 



266 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



Centering for a Stone Arch and 
Brick Back Arch. 

Figs. 878 and 879 show the arrangement 
of centering often used when the front of an 
arch is of stone and the backing is of brick 



Centre for Gothic Arch to the Arcade 
of a Church. 

An example of centering of this description 
is illustrated by Figs. 880 to 885. It will be 
seen that in this example, where the mould- 




Fig. 876.— General View of Centre, with Wedges, etc. 



with a 4J-in. reveal. The centre for the 
brickwork is larger to allow of the 4§-in. 
reveal with lagging as shown, whereas a rib 
centre built up of two thicknesses as shown 
is sufficient to support the voussoir if the 
centre of gravity of the stones falls within 
the ribs. When this is not the case another 
rib would have to be made large enough to 
be in contact with some member of the 
moulding. In the case that is here shown 
the rib might be adjusted against the flat 
part of the hollow a or against the square b. 
The two parts of the centre are connected 
together by nailing on blocks as shown at 
C, D, and E (Fig. 879). The block shown at 
f is nearly behind the head and top of the 
standards in the same plane, and thus they 
c n be more easily braced. 



ings of the arch are for the most part in 
chamfered planes, the ordinary centre with 
lagging would be unsuitable, as it would 
only give direct support to the centre mould- 
ing or surface forming the soffit of the arch. 
As these arches are usually built in at least 




Fig. 877. — Block for fixing between Head of 
Ribs as shown at A (Fig. 876). 

two rings of courses, the centre would not 
directly touch the second ring, therefore the 
centres have to be constructed so as to give 
direct support to each ring. This is gener- 



ARCH CENTERINGS. 



267 




Fig. 878. — Half Elevation showing Centering to a Stone Arch ; also Half Elevation of Centering 

to Internal Brick Arch. 



ally done by supporting each, ring upon one section (Fig. 882) it will be seen that the 

or more ribs, the case here dealt with being middle centre b is smaller. It is formed of 

so treated. By reference to the half-sec- two ribs, and gives support to the stones 

tional elevation (Fig. 880) and the transverse forming the soffit of the first ring of the arch. 




Fig. 879. — Conventional View showing the General Arrangement 
of Centering, Wedges, Means of Support, etc. 



268 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 




ARCH CENTERINGS. 



269 




itr vn^v v v 



270 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



The two outer ribs shown at A (Figs. 880 to 
882) are larger so as to support the series of 
s'iones forming the second ring. The con- 
ventional view (Fig. 883), showing part of the 
ribs, the wedges, and the method of support- 
ing, will make the construction clear. Each 
rib is built up of two thicknesses of 11 -in. 



Centering for Barrel Vaulting. 

The isometrical view (Fig. 886) will convey 
a general idea of the centering and timbering 
required in the construction of four semi- 
circular barrel vaults, which intersect at 
right angles in groins as shown. To give a 



887.— Elevation of Cross 
Rib for Vaulting. 




Fig. 888. —Plan of Centering at Intersection of Vaults : C, Plan of Intermediate Principal, 
or Rib. D, Elevation of Same. E, True Form of Half Diagonal Principal. F, Develop- 
ment of Lagging. 



boards from 1 in. to 1J in. thick, according 
to the weight to be supported, nailed to- 
gether in the usual manner. The struts 
may also be of board stuff, or 4-in. by 3-in. 
to 6-in. by 3-in. scantling may be used and 
shouldered to the ribs as shown by Figs. 884 
and 885. The ribs should be braced together 
as indicated in the elevations and section. 



better view of the centering connected with 
the groining of the vaults, the ribs a and B 
(Fig. 886) have been purposely shown farther 
apart than they should be in reality, and 
consequently the standards would be placed 
much nearer together than shown. All 
main members have been shown where prac- 
ticable, but for clearness some of the minor 



ARCH CENTERINGS. 



271 



timbers, such as braces, have been omitted. 
For a similar reason the walls nearest to 
the spectator have not been shown above 
the ground level. The strength of the ribs 
and of the supporting timbers would be 
varied according to the material they would 
have to support. Generally, in the case of 
stonework, the weight to be supported 
would be much greater than in the case of 
brickwork, therefore all members of the 
timbers should be proportionately increased. 
The laggings at the intersection of the 
vaults would be supported principally by 
ribs across the diagonals as shown in the 
conventional view (Fig. 886), and in the 
plan (Fig. 888). One principal would be 
framed up of several thicknesses so as to 
span one of the diagonals ; this should be 
well supported by a head, standards, braces, 
and sill. The other diagonal would be 
spanned by two half -principals ; these would 
be fixed to the main principal by straps and 
bolts, and supported by a head, standards, 
etc. It will be noticed that these principal 
ribs are represented as being backed ; that 
is, the edge of half the thickness of each 
principal rib is bevelled to keep it in the 
same cylindrical surface as the lagging it 
will have to support, so as to afford a firm 
bearing to the latter. As the space from 
one of the ordinary ribs (shown in plan at 
a, Fig. 888) to the intersection at b would 
be too great for the laggings, part prin- 
cipals would be constructed and fixed to 
those spanning the diagonals as indicated 
in plan at c. An elevation of one of these is 
projected at d. A half -elevation of one of 
the diagonal principals is shown at e. Also 
development of portion of the lagging is 
shown at f. The methods of setting out 
the curves for the diagonal principals is 
shown separately at Fig. 889, and that for 
the development of the laggings at Fig. 890. 
At g half the transverse section, from the 
springing to the crown of the vault, is shown 
from 7 to 0. To set this out, mark off the 
thickness of the lagging and draw in the 
quadrant as shown from a' to W ; then, at 
any convenient position below, draw lines 
9, 11, and 9, 10 ; the former represents the 
plan of the line of transverse section of the 
vault and the latter the plan of the line of 
intersection of two vaults. Divide the 



quadrant a' to In' into any number of equal 
parts, and from these draw ordinates at 
right angles to 7, 8. Project each of these 
down to the plan of the diagonal 9, 10. At 
right angles to this line set up ordinates as 
shown at h, the length of each of these 
being, of course, equal to its corresponding 
member at g. Through the points thus ob- 
tained draw the curve. It will be clear to the 
reader that this is a quadrant of an ellipse, 
and that in nearly every practical case it 
would be more convenient to draw in the 




Fig. 890 



Fig. 889. — Geometrical Setting Out for obtaining 
True Form of Edge of Diagonal Principal. 

Fig. 890. — Geometrical Construction for obtaining 

Development of Curve for Intersection of 

Laggings. 

curve by means of an elliptic trammel or other 
of the practical methods described on pp. 250 
to 252. To obtain the development of the 
laggings on ? 'a level with 7, 8 at G, draw 7, 8 
at k (Fig. 890) ; then draw in the quadrant 
7 to 0, equal to 7 to at g ; project across 
from points to 7 at g, and obtain cor- 
responding points on the quadrant at k. 
Produce 0, 8, of course at right angles to 8, 7, 
and at any point in 0, 7, at l, draw P at 
right angles. Obtain the stretch out of the 
quadrant 0,7, and mark it off from to 7 
at l, dividing into the same number of equal 
parts as the quadrant. Projecting down 



272 



CAKPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



from these points in the quadrant, and from 
the corresponding numbered points in the 
line 7 at l, points for the curve are ob- 
tained, and this may be drawn in as shown, 
by which a portion of the lagging is obtained 



turning movement. In the case of vaulting 
spanning a greater distance, thicker material 
would be necessary, and in some cases it 
would be considered necessary to frame the 
principals together out of battens and deals 




Fig. 891. — Part Elevation of Centering and 
Supports. 

as indicated at m. The construction of the 
ribs or principals for vaulting differs very 
much according to the magnitude of the job. 



Fig. 892. — Part Longitudinal Section through A B 
(Fig. 891), showing Bracing connecting Principals. 

3 in. by 4 in., connecting the joints together 
by stub tenons, dogs and straps, as found 
most serviceable. 




Conventional View showing the General Arrangement of the Main Timbers. 



For small vaults spanning not more than 
8 ft. or 9 ft. they would be made of lj-in. or 
lj-in. boarding, nailed together in two 
thicknesses and supported on standards 
6 in. by 4 in. or 6 in. by 6 in., these being 
properly braced so as to prevent any 



Centre for a Segmental Bridge, 
30=ft. Span. 

The accompanying Figs. 891 to 897 
illustrate the construction of the centre for 
a stone and brick segmental bridge of 30-ft. 



ARCH CENTERINGS. 



273 



span and 8-ft. rise, which was actually 
erected over a shallow river. The sizes of 
the different members are given. By refer- 
ence to the conventional view (Fig. 893) and 
details (Figs. 894 to 897) it will be seen that 
the ribs were in two thicknesses, out of 9-in. 
by 2J-in. These were connected to and sup- 
ported by struts, bolted on each side and 
meeting at the foot of the king-post as shown. 



of from 50 ft. to 60 ft., in which it is desir- 
able for the centering to be supported at each 
end only so as to leave as much space as pos- 
sible, such as would be required to allow of 
navigation in the case of a bridge over water, 
or over a thoroughfare for vehicular traffic. 
Fig. 898 also shows part of the elevation of 
the bridge. The conventional view (Fig. 
899) shows clearly the construction of each 




Fig. 894.— Detail of Foot of Principal C 
(Fig. 891). 




-Details of Joints at 
(Fig. 891). 



and G 



All the parts of each principal were con- 
nected together by f-in. bolts and nuts with 
washers, and straps at the foot of the king- 
post. Packing pieces were used where 
necessary, as indicated at a (Fig. 894) and 
b (Fig. 897). The principals were braced 
at 6-ft. centres as indicated at Fig. 892. 

Design for Centre for an Elliptical 

Stone Arch for 50= ft. Span, 

supported at the Ends. 

Fig. 898 shows in elevation the centering 
for the erection of a stone bridge for a span 
12* 




-Detail of Foot ot King-post, 
(Fig. 891). 




Fig. 896.— Detail of Joints at E (Fig. 891). 

principal, and also the means of support 
and bracing. It should be noted that to 
avoid confusion in this view the bracing 
connecting the principals is not shown. The 
leading dimensions are figured on the draw- 
ings, which clearly show the construction, 
and therefore it will only be necessary to 
refer to a few of the chief points in the center- 
ing. The main strut a is connected and 
strapped to the king-post at its foot ; a 
piece of timber b is bolted to it by 1-in. 
bolts as indicated, so as to give additional 
bearing. The ties c are in two thicknesses, 
one being fixed on each side of the main strut 



•2:\ 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 




ARCH CENTERINGS. 



275 




CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 




Fig. 900. — Half Elevation of Centering for Span 
of 100 ft. This is a Design of a Centre 
suggested by Tredgold. 




t^^ 



3MZZ3 




Fig. 902. —Enlarged Details of Joints, etc., at 
C, D, and E (Fig. 900). 



Fig. 901.— Longitudinal Section through A B 
(Fig. 900). 



ARCH CENTERINGS. 



277 



a and of the heel piece b by bolts. By refer- 
ence to Fig. 899 it will be seen that these two 
thicknesses are gradually brought together 
so that they become equal to the thickness 
of the king-post to which they are connected 
and strapped. This allows an uninterrupted 
horizontal brace to run through on each 
side of the principal, so that it can be bolted 
to each member which it crosses. The ends 
of these horizontal braces are connected by 
bolts to a piece of scantling cut between the 
struts d and e. When the arch is loaded, 
this allows these braces to serve as struts. 
Two pairs of wedges are shown under the end 
of each principal, their purpose being to give 
a greater bearing surface, to obviate any 
chance of the wedges being crushed, and 
also to facilitate the easing or striking of 
the principals. 

Design for Centre suggested by 
Tredgold. 

Figs. 900 to 904 are the elevation, section, 
and details of the centering for an elliptical 
stone arch as designed by the well-known 
authority, Tredgold. This particular con- 
struction may be used for any span from 
60 ft. to 100 ft., and the centres of similar 
design, modified to special requirements, 
have proved successful. In Fig. 900 a special 
form of wedging for adjusting the principals 
and striking them is shown in elevation at 
h. The particular shape of each piece will 
be understood by reference to Fig. 904. 
The pairs of wedges k are for insertion in the 
four spaces shown at h (Fig. 900). These 
wedges are used for adjusting the principals. 
When it is desired to ease the principals, to 
prevent any slipping of the main wedges, 
these smaller wedges are loosened, and the 
centre wedge is struck at the end h. Or, 
upon the centres being struck, the smaller 
wedges would be taken right out and the 
centre wedge h driven back to its full ex- 
tent. Sometimes the end H is shod with 
iron to prevent splitting whilst being driven. 

Centering for a Segmental Stone Arch, 

70= ft. Span, resting on Five 

Supports. 

The design for the centering for a segmental 
stone arch for a 70-ft. span and 30-ft. rise 




Fig. 903.— Enlarged Details of Joints at F and G 
(Fig. 900). 




Fig. 904. — Enlarged Detail of the System of 

Wedging for Striking Centre at H 

(Fig. 900). 



278 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



is shown by Figs. 905 and 906. This form 
is applicable where intermediate supports 



The right-hand half shows an alternative 
method where the head beam a is supported 




are permissible. The left-hand half shows 
how the timbering would be arranged if sup- 
ported on five rows of piles or standards. 



at five positions, but only four rows of piles 
or standards are needed. This arrange- 
ment would provide for a space of about 



ARCH CENTERINGS. 



279 




Fig. 906.— Longitudinal ^ 
Section on A B (Fig. 905). 




Fig. 907.— General View of Screw Jack for 
easing Principals. 



Fig. 908. — Transverse Section through a Tunnel, 
showing Alternative Methods of Centering. 

32 ft. for navigation or traffic. The left-hand 
half shows ordinary pairs of wedges for 
easing and striking, whilst on the right 
simple forms of screw jacks are shown. The 
bodies of these jacks are castings fixed on the 
transom beams, the heads of the screws 
bearing against malleable cast plates bolted 
to the under edge of the tie beam. An en- 
larged detail of one of these jacks is shown 
at Fig. 907. 

Centering for a Tunnel. 

A transverse section through a tunnel 
is given at Fig. 908, where it will be seen 
that the trusses for the ribs have queen- 
posts ; this principle of construction gives 
great strength, and is in general favour for 
this class of work. Alternative designs for 
trusses are given at a and b ; as also for 
the supporting timbering at d and e. When 
a section of the arch has been completed, 
arrangement is made to lower the centering 
a little from the soffit, and then to push 
the centering forward and raise it to its 



280 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



Fig. 909.— 

Elevation of Bridge 

with Skew Arch. 




Fig. 910.— Plan, Transverse Section 
Development of Soffit. 

proper height by supporting on wedges. 
To facilitate the pushing forward of the 
centering, a method which was used many 
years ago in France is sometimes adopted, 
by fixing strong axle rollers as indicated at 
f. Thus when the wedges are taken out 
the rollers are received by planks as shown, 
and the centering is easily levered forward. 

Centering for a Skew Arch Bridge. 

The elevation of a bridge with a skew arch 
is shown by Fig. 909, where it will be noted 
that the face of the arch is elliptical ; but 
by reference to Fig. 910 it will be seen that 
the transverse section a of the arch is a semi- 
circle. At Fig. 911 is given an elevation 
of one elliptical rib and the p^an of seven 
ribs. Sometimes the ribs for skew arches 
are made to fit the transverse section, and 



placed as indicated in the plan (Fig. 912) ; 
but it will be seen that for the present case 
(shown by a, b, c, d) this arrangement would 
be unsuitable, because of the large propor- 
tion of some of the ribs at each end, which 
is not required to support the arch ; also the 
thrust of the masonry at the loaded ends 
would necessitate the other ends being 
strongly shored to prevent movement. 
When the axis of the arch is less oblique to 
the face, as indicated by the dotted lines 
e p and G h, square centering is permissible, 
and often an advantage. The development 



ARCH CENTERINGS. 



281 



of the soffit of the arch is shown at b (Fig. 
910), the line a d being equal in length to the 
semicircle a b c, and each one divided into 
an equal number of parts, giving points from 
which generators are drawn as shown. By 
projecting from where the plan of each 
generator cuts the face line c e to its respec- 
tive position in the development b, a number 
of points of intersection are obtained through 
which the curve of the front edge of the 
soffit can be drawn as shown by the line 



of the voussoirs of the arch, as indicated at 
Fig. 918. This centre is supported on the 
same timbering, but is independent of the 
centering for the soffit of the dome. The 
front rib of the centering for the soffit is 
built up of two thicknesses of lj-in. stuff, 
with 4-in. by 2J-in. stuff for struts. The 
transverse ribs are made of 1-in. stuff, and 
constructed as indicated at Figs. 920 to 923. 
It will be observed that these ribs have 
their curved edges bevelled so as to fit the 




Fig. 911. — Method of arranging Ribs 
Parallel to Face of Arch. 



Fig- 



912. — Method of arranging Ribs Square to 
Axis of Arch. 



e f d ; g h and h are obtained in a similar 
manner. The coursing joints are shown on 
the development, and from this they have 
been projected to the plan, and from the 
plan to the elevation. 

Centering for a Large Elliptical 
Niche or Semi=Dome. 

Fig. 913 is half the sectional elevation 
of an elliptical stone niche or semi-dome 
on line a b (Fig. 914). It is 24 ft. 
span, rise 8 ft. 6 in., and depth 8 ft. 6 in. 
The centre for the arch in the front of 
the dome is formed of two ribs, upon 
which lagging pieces are fixed ; these are 
sufficiently long to give support to the soffit 



soffit. The amount of this bevelling, and 
also the size of each rib, has been projected 
from the plan (Fig. 916) to the end view 
(Fig. 917). The transverse ribs are fixed to 
the front rib in the manner clearly shown 
at Fig. 919. The whole would be supported 
on timber staging as shown, with wedges 
inserted under the centering for striking pur- 
poses. If the stones'were of a large size, little 
or no lagging would be required, provided 
the ribs were sufficiently near together. 

In the event of constructing centering of 
this character for a dome to be built in brick- 
work, it would be necessary to close-board 
the top of the centre ; and in this case the 
boards would have to be shaped somewhat 



282 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY 




1 



ARCH CENTERINGS. 



283 



as shown at d (Fig. 917). The geometrical 
method of doing this is as follows : — From 
any convenient points in the plan of the 
Jace of the rib, as to 9, project up to the 
front arris of the soffit in elevation. But as 



to half the breadth of the board in its 
widest part, join 10, and continue the other 
arcs to touch 10 as shown by the dotted 
lines (Fig. 917). Now draw the plans of 
these as shown by 1 to 9 (Fig. 916). Then 




Fig. 919. — Conventional View showing arrangement of Ribs for Soffit. 




Fig. 920.— Elevation of Rib A (Fig. 916). 

in this case the ellipse in plan is the same as 
in elevation, points to b may be used as 
shown. Draw 9 (Fig. 917) in the same line 
as 9 (Fig. 916). Along 9 (Fig. 917) 
mark off distances to 9 equal to to 9 
along the elliptic curve to 9 (Fig. 916), con- 
tinue the arc g e as e 10, make e 10 equal 




Fig. 921.— Elevation of Rib B (Fig. 916). 

from where each of the dotted arcs cuts line 
10 (Fig. 917) project parallel to 9 to 
intersect with their plans at Fig. 916. One 
of the projectors is lettered h h (Figs. 916 
and 917). Producing these projectors to 
the right, until they cut the ordinates to 
9 (Fig. 917), a series of points are obtained 



284 



CARPENTRY AND JOIXERY. 



through which the curve p q can be de- 
scribed as shown. The other half v s is 
the same shape. To keep the working on 
the illustrations as clear as possible, the 
spheroidal surface has been continued in 
front as indicated at e (Fig. 916). The 



Centering- for Groin Vaulting. 

Fig. 024 is a sketch of groin vaulting 
over part of an octagonal space as shown 
by the plan (Fig. 925), which also shows 
the plans of the ribs for the centering. The 




Fig. 922.— Elevation of Rib C (Fig. 916). 




Fig. 923. —Elevation of Rib D (Fig. 916). 




Fig. 924.— Sectional Elevation of Vaulting taken on Line A B (Fig. 925) 



method of drawing normals, or rather joint 
lines, of the voussoirs of the arch is shown 
at Fig. 913. First find the foci points of the 
ellipse (ab), then, at the points where the 
joint commences, draw lines from each focus 
point and continue it as shown by D and E ; 
bisect the angle by c f, which gives the 
direction of the joint line required. The 
other lines that are required are obtained 
in the same manner. 



left half illustrates only the elevation of the 
centres carrying the main ribs of the vault- 
ing shown in plan by A and l (Fig. 925), but 
on the right all the ribs of the centering are. 
shown. It will be observed that on each 
side of the centres carrying the main ribs of 
the vaulting there is provided a rib made of 
two thicknesses to help to carry the stones of 
the panels ; these ribs are lettered gh,de, 
etc. Under the intersection of the panels 



ARCH CENTERINGS. 



285 



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286 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



a rib is shown at f and p, and at the wall end 
these ribs are shown by r and s. Small rib 
pieces marked v are shown, connected to the 
ribs e, f p, etc. These are cut to the form 
that is desired for the soffits of the panels. 
A method of obtaining the shape of these is 
shown at Fig. 927. The line 1 to x is the 
true shape of the intersection between the 
panels ; 6 a' x is the elevation of the line 
of intersection as indicated by 1 to 5 (Fig. 
927) ; radial lines are drawn to this curve, 
meeting the intersection 6fl'x in a' to e'. 



By projecting horizontally from points 1 
to 5 and af to e' (Fig. 927) the positions of 
the rib pieces have been determined at 1 
to 5, etc., in the elevation (Fig. 926). A 
method of obtaining the true curvature of 
the outline for the centre for the main ribs 
is shown at Fig. 928, which is projected from 
Fig. 925. 

Centering- for a Hemispherical Dome. 

The illustrations (Figs. 929 to 935) show 
the necessary centering and timber support 




Fig. 929. 



-Half Sectional Elevation of Dome, and 
Elevation of a Main Rib. 



Horizontally from these, points are pro- 
jected as shown ; also with these points as 
centres, arcs are drawn meeting the hori- 
zontals in points 6' to 10' ; then project 
down from these points and obtain points 
6 to 10 in w z. From points a' to e' project 
down to Y z, obtaining points a to e. Now 
by drawing arcs joining a 6, bl, etc., the 
shape of the edge of each rib-piece is ob- 
tained as shown. The curvature of these 
arcs can be varied from almost a straight 
line to an amount which would make the 
intersection of the panels disappear by 
taking the centres on the plan of it (w z). 



Fig. 930. — Half Elevation of Centering, and 
Timber Stage for supporting it. 

for the erection of a hemispherical dome, 
30 ft. to 40 ft. diameter. Fig. 929 is a half- 
sectional elevation of the dome, and also 
shows the construction of one of the main 
ribs. At Fig. 930 are shown a half elevation 
of the main and secondary ribs with wedges, 
and also the method of timber supports- 
under. The plan of all the ribs and main 
timbering is clearly shown at Fig. 931. A 
quarter plan, looking up, and a quarter plan 
of the upper side of the supporting stage, 
are given at Fig. 932. The conventional view 
(Fig. 933) will convey a fair idea of this- 
supporting timber work. It also shows a 



ARCH CENTERINGS. 



287 



central post, or mast, to which some of the 
main members are attached. The necessary 



at A (Fig. 934), which also shows a form of 
lagging very convenient for work of this 




Fig. 931. — Plan of Ribs and 
Main Timbering. 




Fig. 932.— Quarter Plan, looking up, of Timber Stage, and Quarter Plan of Top of Stage. 



wedges, etc., are also illustrated. The 
method of connecting the secondary ribs to 
the main ones by a trimming piece is shown 



class, made by pieces of scantling having an 
edge cut to the curvature of the soffit of the 
dome ; their edges are all struck from the 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 




Fig. 935.— 
Construction 

of a 
Secondary 

Rib. 



Fig. 933.— Conventional View of Timbering and Staging, and Part View of a Main Rib. 




Fig. 934. — Conventional View showing Connection of Secondary Rib with Main Ribs, and Method 

of Lagging Centering. 

same centre, thus they can be cut from one same distance, as indicated at b and c (Fig. 
mould by a bandsaw, then notched down 934). The construction of a secondary rib 
on the ribs so that they all project up the is shown by Fig. 935. 




»»»* 



JOINERS' RODS. 



Introduction. — A rod stands in the same 
relation to a craftsman as a scaled drawing 
does to a designer. In most shops the work 
is done by a setter-out, who makes his 
drawings from full-sized details prepared 
by the architect. The most convenient size 
of rod for general use is about 10 ft. by 
11 in. by f in., but a varied stock should be 
kept. Rods should be of pine, free from 
shakes and loose knots. Pine is chosen on 
account of its softness and evenness of grain, 
which enables lines of equal firmness, and 
not easily erasable, to be drawn. The 
boards should be nicely smoothed, whitened 
over, and rubbed with fine glass-paper to 
produce an even surface. The edges should 
be kept square. For making drawings on 
the rods, squares with 6-in., 12-in., and 
36-in. blades, a trammel, dividers, pencil 
compasses, and a five-foot rule, will be 
found most useful 

Rods for Ledged and Beaded Door 
and Frame. 

Fig. 936, Rod 1 (scale = f in. to 1 ft.), 
shows the plan of a ledged and beaded door, 
in a 4|-in. by 3-in. rebated and beaded 
frame, fixed in a 4|-in. wall. (Fig. 937 
shows a section of the door and frame, and 
will be referred to later.) This kind of door 
is generally used for outhouses. First lay 
the rod on the bench and draw a line parallel 
to the front about 1 in. from the edge, which 
will represent the face of the wall. At a 
distance of 4£ in. from it draw a parallel line 
to represent the thickness of the wall. As 
plaster is not required, the framework will 
be of the same thickness, an opening 3 ft. 

13 



wide being made in the brickwork to receive 
it. The lines meet at a a. The two 
posts b b are next filled in, the outside of 
the frames being marked off J in. less than 
the opening, which saves scribing, as the 
brickwork is always more or less rough. 
Fig. 938 shows a mould of a wood jamb or 
post used in Fig. 936. If several patterns of 
moulds are kept in stock, much time will be 
saved in setting out. A space of 2 ft. 6 in. 
is required in the clear of the frame, the 
posts being 2| in. when planed, and a 3-in. 
jamb is allowed for. A line is next drawn 
joining the rebate at each end, as shown, 
the thickness of the door and a depth of 
J in. being included. The space between 
the two jambs is divided into five equal 
parts, the two outer boards which fit into 
the rebates being J in. wider than the 
others, so that they show equal on the face. 
On each side of the tongued edge at the 
boarding joints a tongue and bead is filled 
in. The projection marked c (Fig. 936) re- 
presents the ledge on the back, forming a 
rail to which the boards are fixed. It is 
made 1J in. thick, with a f-in. chamfer. 
Where possible, an elevation is drawn at one 
end of the plan rod, as shown at Fig. 936 
(enlarged at Fig. 939), for general guidance. 
The rod is turned over and the height drawn 
in section (see Fig. 937). Parallel lines 4J in; 
apart are drawn as before, a a is squared 
across, and the head filled in with the mould 
shown in Fig. 938. From a a set down 
6 ft. 9 in., the height required, which gives a 
6-ft. 6£-in. door. The ledges or rails are 
filled in as shown, the middle one being 3 ft. 
from the bottom, the lower one 1 ft. from 
289 



290 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



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p 



the bottom, and the top one 9 in. down to 
the under side. The top rail is 4| in. wide 



Fig. 938.— Mould of Jamb used in Fig. 936. 

and chamfered on the top and bottom 
edges, the lower ones 7 in. 

Rods for Four=panelled Moulded and 
Square Door and Frame. 

Rod 2 (Fig. 940) (scale = f in. to 1 ft.) 
represents the plan of a four-panelled 
moulded and square door (that is, with a 
mould on one side only), having double 
rebated casings, set in.' a 9-in. brick wall 



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Fig. 939.— Elevation of Ledged Door. 

which is plastered on both sides. (Fig. 941 
is the height rod showing section of the 



JOINERS' RODS. 



291 



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door.) The door casing has deal splayed 
grounds and moulded architraves. First 
draw parallel lines 1J in. from the edge for 
the face of the plaster. The rod being only 
11 in. wide, there will not be sufficient space 
to show the width with the architrave in full. 
It has therefore to be set out with a broken 
line, the out-to-out widths being indicated 
by figures. At a distance of 8 in. from the 
last, a second parallel line is drawn, represent- 
ing the face of the plaster on the opposite 
side, 10J in. being figured in ; that is, 9 in: 
for the brickwork and f in. on each side for 
the plaster. As a door 6 ft. 8 in. by 2 ft. 8 in. 
by 2 in. is required in this case, an opening 
of 3 ft. is made, which will allow for lj-in. 
casings with proper backings. Draw two 
lines 3 ft. apart, meeting the parallel lines 
at d d, and draw another line, at a distance 




Fig 942. — Mould of Architrave used 
in Fig. 940. 

of \ in., to form the back side of the casing. 
Another line, drawn at a distance of 1J in. 
from the latter, will form the face of the 
skeleton frame and the door rebate. The 
width of the stiles is rilled in at e. They 
should always be made at least 1 in. wider 
than the thickness of the door, which in 
this case is 2 in. The stiles should therefore 
not be less than 3 in., so that sufficient width 
is allowed for the proper fixing of the stop. 
The finished thickness of a 2-in. door being 
1J in., the stop will be 3| in. narrower than 
the entire width of the framed lining, and 
as the latter is 10 \ in., the stop will be 6| in. 
wide and \ in. thick. Jamb linings are fre- 
quently made in the solid, and, if so required, 
the setting out will be as shown on the left- 
hand side of the opening f. A 2-in. by f-in: 
splayed deal ground G is provided at the 
back of the linings, and a 3-in. moulded 
architrave as seen in Fig. 942 filled in. This 
will cover the joint where the plaster meets 
the ground. Next fill in the door, and draw 
a parallel line to meet the rebate at hh on 
each side. This gives the thickness, the 
stiles being 4| in. wide. Take a mould 



292 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



similar to^that shown at Fig. 943, and mark 
its outline on the rod at each side in the 
position indicated by j. Fill in the'muntin 
in the centre of the same width, with a panel 
10 J in. by 9| in., sight size. Draw the two 
parallel lines k k representing the panels, 
the moulding on the face of the latter being 
filled in with the mould shown in Fig. 944. 
An elevation is given at the end of the rod 
(see Fig. 940, and enlargement at Fig. 945). 
Turn over the rod and fill in the height, as 
at Fig. 941, following the same rules as 
before. The door is shown on one side 6 ft. 
8 in. high, with bottom and middle rails 
each 9 in. wide, and a top rail 4| in. wide. 
The distance from the top edge of the 
middle rail to the bottom of the door is 3 ft. 
In the opposite rebate the rails of the skeleton 



U7^ 



Fig. 943. Fig. 944. 

Fig. 943.— Mould of Stile J (Fig. 940). 
Fig. 944.— Mould used in Fig. 940. 

frame may be shown as seen in Fig. 941, 
or left blank if a solid lining is to be 
provided. 

Rods for 2 J- in. Deal Door, Bead Butt 
and Square. 

On Rod 3, shown by Fig. 946 (scale 
= } in. to 1 ft.), set out a 4J-in. by 3-in. 
solid rebated, beaded, and staff-beaded 
frame fixed in a 14-in. wall. The door is a 
2J-in. deal one, bead butt and square, and 
is provided with a left-hand mortice lock. 
(Fig. 947 shows the height rod, giving section 
of door and frame.) The frame has 1-in. 
side linings and soffit, with splayed grounds, 
and moulded architraves on the inside. The 
total width of the frame and linings is 10J 
in., being a 4J-in. brick reveal. The reveal 
is shown by two square lines 3 ft. apart, 
and 1 in. from the edge of the rod. At each 
end draw a parallel line 3 in. long to form a 
rebate for the deal frame, which is 3 in. 
thick. Mark the mould shown in Fig. 948 



on the rod as before, leaving J in. over the 
quirk of the bead (see l, Fig. 948). Draw a 
line parallel to the back of the frame (the 
inside edge), and one to meet the rebate for 
the door. Fill in the stiles and the muntin 
with the same mould as before, the panels 
being bead flush — that is, beaded all round, 
and level with the face of the door. Fill 
in with the mould shown in Fig. 949, a 
tongue and bead being formed. Square 
across from the groove on the inside edge 




Fig. 945. — Elevation of Four-panelled Moulded 
Door. 

of the frame to meet a line 10J in. from the 
face of the frame. This will form the face 
of the lining. The thickness is given by 
setting back 1 in., and squaring across as 
before. The plan will be completed when 
the 2-in. splayed ground and moulded archi- 
trave have been filled in, and a sketch, 
elevation has been drawn as before (see 
Figs. 946 and 950). On the other side of 
the rod set out the height, with rails of 
the same depth, and complete the rod by 
filling in the head and soffit lining, the 
ground and the architrave. 



JOINERS' RODS. 



293 






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Rods for Boxed Sash Frame. 

It is desirable that not only the joiner's 
work shall be shown on the rod, but the 



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Fig. 948.— 

Mould of Frame used 

in Fig. 946. 



Fig. 949.— 

Mould of Panel 

in Fig. 946. 




Fig. 950. — Elevation of Four-panelled Door. 

brickwork in which it is placed, and the 
method of obtaining the interior finishings. 
The setting out a rod for an ordinary boxed 
sash frame, of which Fig. 951 is a plan, at 
the window-board level, and a horizontal 
section through the frame and brickwork, 
will be first considered. (Fig. 952 is the 



294 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



vertical section of the sash.) The frame is 
6 ft. high by 3 ft. wide— that is, fronrthe 
top of the stone sill to the springing of "the 



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arch, and between the brick reveals, which 
is the general method for giving the sizes of 
frames. Take a rod 8 ft. long and 12 in. 
wide, and prepare it as before. Draw a line 



1 in. from the edge 3 ft. 9 in. long, parallel 
with it, and from each extremity set in 
4J in., leaving the 3-ft. reveal a a. It is 
immaterial what portion of the brick reveal 
is shown ; the rod being too narrow to show 
the usual 4J in., an inch is sufficient for the 
purpose. Square across from each ex- 
tremity a line 9| in. long, and from each 
point of the last lines draw another parallel 
to b b. These lines represent the face of 
the plaster, and a line | in. from the line 
b b will give the thickness of the plaster. 
These parts, from a to b on each side, should 
be marked with red crayon to indicate that 
it is solid brickwork, blue crayon being put on 




Fig. 953. — Enlarged Section through Side 
Boxings of Frame. 

for the plaster. Next proceed to fill in the 
frame and finishings. In this instance the 
sashes are 2 in. thick with 1 in. outer and 
inner linings, making the total thickness 
6 J in. as shown in the erlarged detail (Fig. 
953). Draw a line 6J in. from the face line 
c to represent the thickness of the frame ; 
at a distance of J in. from the same line 
draw another to represent the thickness of 
the outer lining ; fill in the lines at d d to 
form the pulley stiles, and draw the line e 
1§- in. from the line d d for the thickness of. 
the pulley stile. From the inner line of the 
frame fill in the inside lining J in. thick^at 
f f ; also add tongues to the pulley stiles. 
The width of the inner and outer linings is 
the same, being 4 J in., the outer one project- 
ing f in. to form the stop for the sash and 



JOINERS' RODS. 



295 



a margin round the brick reveal. The inner 
I one is level with the face of the pulley stile, 
and projects f in. at each side, allowing 
| sufficient room to enable a plough groove 
\ to be made to receive the back linings at 
; g G. Care should be taken to fill in all 
! details. The sashes being cut out of 2-in. 
stuff will finish If in. Fill in a dotted line 
I lxl in. from the dotted line H to represent 
I the upper sash. This is shown dotted be- 
cause the section line does not cut through 
| it. At a distance of | in. from the last line 
draw a line for the parting bead, and another 
for the thickness of the sash, leaving 1J in. 
' for the width of the stop bead 1 and the 
draught bead which is tongued to sill. In 
setting out the thickness of a frame, take 
care to allow the stop bead to cover the 
I joint between the pulley stile and the inside 
lining. Fill in the parting bead, allowing it 






954. 



Fig. 954.— Mould for Bead. 
Fig. 955.— Mould for Sash Stile. 
Fig. 956. — Mould for Architrave. 

to pass into a groove formed in the pulley 
stile J in; deep. This will then project 
§ in. beyond the face of the pulley stile. 
Take the mould (Fig. 954), and fill in the bead 
i; take also the mould (Fig. 955), and fill 
in the stiles of the sashes. Put in the 
parting slips J which separate the weights. 
From the inside face of the pulley stile 
mark on 3 in.,' and allow it to form a margin 
round the frame, as shown ; this will show 
the position of the face of the side linings 
and soffit, which are tongued with the in- 
side lining of the frame, which is grooved 
to receive the tongue. This lining will 
finish, in width, level with the face of the 
plaster, and will be an inch thick. Fill in 
the architrave K with the mould (Fig. 956) 
as shown. Draw a line L J in. from the 
face of the architrave to represent the front 
edge of the window-board. Square across 



a line at each end in the same position as 
the architrave to form the return ends of the 
window-board. The rough grounds behind 
the architraves, to which the latter are 




Fig. 957.— Mould for Oak Sill. 

fixed, provide a good base for fixing the 
linings, and a key for the plaster. 

Height Rod. — Turn the rod over and set 
out the vertical section or height as at Fig. 
952. The height of the frame is 6 ft. Draw 
a line as before 1 in. from the edge of the 
rod, stopping at the line forming the top of 
the stone sill, and running 4^ in. beyond the 
6 ft. height. Fill in the sill with the mould 
shown in Fig. 957, and continue the 6J-in. 
line (the thickness of frame) up to the head. 
Square across the line representing the soffit 
of the frame, and draw the lines for inner 
and outer linings as before. Fill in the 
draught bead with the mould (Fig. 958). 
The inside face of the bottom rail of sash 
will be slightly bevelled to allow the sash to 
pass the wide draught bead when closing. 
With the mould (Fig. 955) fill in the moulding 
of the bottom rail of the sash 4J in. wide 
to the splayed edge, also fill in the top rail 
of the upper sash. Divide the space be- 
tween the sight of each rail into two equal 
parts, the centre thus obtained being the 
centre line of the meeting rails. The latter 




Fig. 958. — Mould for Draught Bead. 

are 1 J in. thick. Fill in the rails as shown, 
the size of the glass being the same in both 
sashes. Fill in the upper part of the frame 
in sectional plan as before. Write the 



296 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



number of the job on the rod, and sketch in 
the elevation as shown at Fig. 959. Figs. 
951 and 952 are drawn to a scale of § in. to 
1 ft., Fig. 959 to a scale of \ in. to 1 ft., 
Fig. 954 half full size, and the remaining 
figures one-third full size. 

Rods for Solid Casement Frame. 

Figs. 960 to 962 show a plan, section, and 
elevation of a solid casement frame. Take 
a rod of the same size as the last and set 




Fig. 959. — Elevation of Sash Frame. 

out the plan as at Fig. 960. The frame is 
set in a 9-in. wall with a 3-ft. 6-in. reveal. 
Draw a line a of any length an inch from 
the edge of the rod, and square lines across 
at b b 4J in. long, another line c being drawn 
parallel with a and projecting 3 J in. at each 
side beyond the 3-ft. 6-in. reveal. The 
thickness of the wall is given by drawing a 
line 9 in. from the line a. With the mould 
shown in Fig. 963, fill in the jamb of the 
frame at each side, projecting j in. from 
brickwork as shown (see line d, Fig. 963). 
Fill in the sash stiles with the mould shown 
in Fig. 955 (p. 295), allowing sufficient width 
in the meeting stiles to form the hook 
joint, and sufficient width on the outer stiles 
to form the circular tongue. The sight 
size — that is, the clear size between the 



square of the moulding — is the same in both 
lights; To obtain the exact positions of the 
centre or meeting stiles, first fill in the 



h 



h- 



hanging stiles and divide the space into 
two equal parts, working from the centre 
point outwards for distance. The method 
of working from a centre will be found far 



JOINERS' RODS. 



297 



preferable to any other, as it enables the 
work to be done more exactly. After rilling 
in the sashes, continue all lines as shown, 
and fill in the architraves with the mould 
seen in Fig. 964, leaving a proper margin. 
The brickwork and plaster are filled in from 
the moulding as before. Turn the rod 



of it set up 1 ft. 5J in. to the under side of the 
head. The head is filled in with the mould 
shown in Fig. 967. With the mould shown 
at Fig. 964 fill in the architrave, continuing 
all lines as shown. The mouldings of the 
sash rails are filled in with the mould shown in 
Fig. 955 (p. 295), the widths being those usual, 





_* ^ 



Fig. 965.— Mould for Oak Sill 
used in Fig-. 961. 



Fig. 963.— Mould for Jamb 
used in Fig. 960. 



Fig. 962.— Elevation of Solid 
Casement Frame. 





Fig. 964.— Mould for Architrave Fig. 966.— Mould for Transom Fig. 967.— Mould for Head used 
used in Figs. 960 and 961. used in Fig. 961. in Fig. 961. 



round and set out the section shown in Fig. 
961. The distance from the top of the stone 
sill to the under side of the arch at spring- 
ing is 6 ft. From the front edge of the rod, 
square a line across to represent the top 
of the sill, and another 6 ft. from it for 
the springing. Show the reveal as before 
4J in. from the face of the frame to the face 
of the wall. With the mould shown in Fig. 

965 fill in the oak sill, and from the top of 
the latter set up 4 ft. to the under side of the 
transom. With the mould shown by Fig. 

966 fill in the transom, and from the top 

13* 



as shown. A mould for each width should 
be kept for general use. Figs. 960 and 961 
are drawn to a scale of f in. to 1 ft., Fig. 962 
to a scale of J in. to 1 ft., and the remaining 
figures one-third full size. 

Rods for Square Bay Window. 

Take a rod 8 ft. long by 3 ft. wide, and 
set out a square bay window, with solid 
frame, 6 ft. by 2 ft. The width rod is repre- 
sented by Fig. 968, and the height rod by 
Fig. 969. Draw a line for the face of the 
wall (see Fig. 968), and from it draw two 



298 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



lines 6 ft. apart and each 2 ft. long. Join 
the two points forming the outside of the 
bay, fill in the angle posts with the mould 



angle posts and the mullions being 1 ft. 7 in. 
Mark on the section of the mullion with the 
mould shown in Fig. 972, the hollows in the 




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seen in Fig. 970, and with the mould seen 
in Fig. 971 fill in the wall posts as shown. 
Divide the distance between the angle posts 
into three parts, allowing 7 in. for the thick- 
ness of the mullions, the distance between the 



rebating being filled in as required. With 
the mould seen in Fig. 955 (p. 295), fill in 
the sash stiles, and continue all the lines as 
before, carrying the width of the casement 
into the space as shown. Fill in the stiles, 



JOINERS' RODS. 



->JJiJ 



divide the space between the sight lines into 
four parts, deducting 3 in. for bars, and 
the plan of the fanlight will be complete 
(see b, Fig. 968). In the inner edge of the 



and fill in the head with the mould seen 
in Fig. 974, and the transom with the 
mould seen in Fig. 966 (p. 297). The rails 
are filled in as described in the previous 






Fig. 970.— Mould for Angle Post Fig. 971.— Mould for Wall Post 
used in Fig. 968. used in Fig. 968. 



Fig. 972.— Mould for Mullion 
used in Fig. 968. 




Fig. 973.— Mould for Sill used in 
Fig. 969. 




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-Mould for Head used 
in Fig. 969. 



Fig. 975.— Elevation for Square Bay Window. 



wall posts plough a groove to receive the 
tongue on the lining a, and fill in the lining 
and bead to the broken line. Turn over 
the rod, and set out the section or height 
shown in Fig. 969. This is 6 ft. from the 
top of the stone sill to the top of the head 
of the frame. Commence as before, and fill 
in the sill with the mould seen in Fig. 973, 



paragraph, and the upper sash divided 
into squares as shown in Figs. 969 and 975, 
the latter figure also showing the stops on 
the moulding of the angle post. Figs. 
968 and 969 are drawn to a scale of | in. 
to the foot, Fig. 975 to a scale of \ in. to 
the foot, and the remaining figures are one- 
third full size. 



3()i) 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



Rods for Canted Bay Window. 

Figs. 976 and 977 represent respectively 
the width rod and height rod for a canted 



the parallel lines are made with the aid of a 
straightedge and the perpendicular with a 
set-square. If the bay window is required 
to be made in wood without stone mullions, 




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Fig. 978.— Mould 

for Horn used 

in Fig. 977. 



bay window set in stone mullions and jambs. 
These are set out in the same manner as 
the frame described on Rod 1 (Figs. 936 and 
937, p. 290), except that at the sides or cants 



etc., the work is similarly set out, but the 
boxings for the weights are kept as small as 
possible, and the outer linings mitred at 
the angles, a moulding being generally intro- 



JOINERS' RODS. 



301 





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Fig. 979. — Joiners' Rods for Skylight. 



Fig. 980.— Section through Side of Skylight. 




>2?* —4 >2: 

Fig. 981.— Transverse Section through Skylight, etc. 



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*2,k — — •••• — ------ -g - __.____-_.- 

Fig. 982.— Longitudinal Section through Skylight. 



i J" 



302 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



duced to form a margin round each frame. 
Fig. 978 shows the mould for the horn or 
projecting end of the upper sash at the 
meeting rail. All the other moulds for this 
rod can be made by modifying those previ- 
ously described. Figs. 976 and 977 are 
drawn to a scale of J in. to the foot, and 
Fig. 978 is one-third full size. 

Rods for Skylight. 

To set out the skylight shown in Figs; 
979 to 982 it will be first necessary to set 
out Fig. 981, which, being the'section, shows 



shape and fixed on the outside ; f -in. board- 
ing on the inside finishing flush with the face 
of the apron lining, and the ends butting on 
the top edge of the latter lining. Get a 
rod 8 ft. long by 3 ft. wide ; from the edge 
draw a parallel line 1 in. from it ; set up a 
perpendicular for the centre line, the rough 
curb being 4 ft. in the clear ; measure off 
2 ft. on each side from the centre line, and 
set up lines llf in. high, representing 
trimmers and plaster. Now draw a line 




Fig. 983.— Detail at Apex of Skylight, showing 
Ridge Roll. 

all finishings. The curb forms the trimmer 
joists of the flat. The two long sides are 
splayed to the pitch of the roof or light. The 
rough curb is 6 ft. by 4 ft. in clear, the roof 
rising 1 ft. 6 in. ; the apron lining which 
covers the rough curb is of 1-in. stuff beaded 
on the bottom edge and grooved for the 
plastered ceiling on the back side ; the 
moulding running round along the top of the 
apron is hollow on the top to form a con- 
densation gutter. The light itself is 2 in. 
thick, with stiles, top rails, and bars moulded. 
The bottom rail is left square on the top 
edge, and grooved on the under side at the 
bottom to form a drip for rainwater ; the 
top fail and ridge roll are covered with 5 -lb. 
lead, dressed so as to cover the putty in the 
groove of the top rail. The ends are formed 
by fixing a fillet on the upper edge of the 
curb ; also on the under side of the stiles of 
the light 1-in. rough boarding is cut spandril 



Fig. 984.— Section through Curb of Skylight, 
showing Apron Lining and Moulding. 

parallel with the first, meeting at the two 
points a a (Fig. 981). The latter line will 
be the level of the upper edge of the curb. 
From the point of intersection of the latter 
line with the centre at B, set up 1 ft. 6 in., 
this being the rise of the roof on the inside 
face of the framing at c. Now draw lines 
cutting c a on each side, allowing the lines 
to project to beyond a. Measure off 2 in. 
from this line, and fill in the thickness of 
the skylight. Add also the ridge roll (see 
Fig. 983). Now fill in lines representing 
the apron lining at d. Seven -eighths of an 
inch from the curb, form a |-in. bead on the 
bottom edge as shown. The upper edge 
will be spkyed the same as the curb ; fill 
in the thickness of the curb 2J in. ; form a 



JOINERS' RODS. 



303 



slight rebate on the top edge, outside, to 
receive the lead dressing ; and form the 
moulding on the top rail at e, allowing 3| 
in. for the width. Note that the top rail is 
grooved for the glass instead of being rebated 
(as is usual) at the sides. The bottom rail 



includes the thickness of the rough boarding 
at i. Fill in the fillets j j at the top and 
bottom. Now from the two lines, first 
drawn on the inner side, measure § in. 
for the thickness of the apron lining and 
matched boarding ; continue the line from 




Fig. 985.— Detail showing Method of Fixing Bar to Bottom Rail. 



should carry about the same line of sight as 
the moulding vertically ; it will therefore 
project 2 in. on the horizontal line. Indicate 
roughly the depth of the joist, and show 
boarding and lead to flat. Divide the space 
at the spandril end, and fill in the lines to 
represent the beaded joint of the matched 




QP_J 


-*H 



Fig. 986. — Detail Section through Stile and Side 
of Skylight. 

boarding f. Turn the rod over, and set out 
Fig. 982 ; draw a line 1 in. from the edge as 
before, and set up two perperdiculars 6 ft. 
apart. These lines must be the same length 
as from c to g (Fig. 981), being the height 
to the under side of the framing. Draw a 
parallel line catting the two points at h h, 
allowing 4 \ in. longer at each end. Measure 
oft 2\ in. at each side for the thickness of the 
curb and set up another line to c. This 



c to G ; form a bead on the 'bottom edge 
of the apron as shown in Fig. 981 : also the 
moulding at k. Draw line L parallel with 
c and 2 in. from it, representing the sight 
line on the top rail. From face line of 
boarding m measure off 2 in., and set up 
perpendicular is T , meeting at line l. Now 
divide the distance between these two lines 
into five parts, allowing 1J in. each for the 
four bars o, making the spaces 12 J in. each ; 
the lines forming these openings are sight 
lines. Fill in the two lines above, and 
parallel with, c, representing the ridge roll. 
Fig. 980, which is a sectional plan through 
the framing, may be set out on an ordinary 
rod 8 ft. long by 11 in., and to figured dimen- 
sions ; it is unnecessary to set out Fig. 979 
full size on a rod, the figure being intended 
simply for illustration and as a guide. Figs. 
983 to 986 are enlarged details of the several 
parts. 

Rods for Recess Cupboard Front in 
Two Heights. 

To set out a cupboard front for a recess 
at the side of a chimnev breast, take a rod 



304 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



8 ft. long by 11 in. wide, and proceed with 
the setting out shown at Figs. 987 and 988. 
The cupboard front will be 7 ft. high from 




^Mtfi 







szsfe 



^If 



6\\ 



<--,j6r->^ 



I * 



"S3 

o 

Pi 

Pi 

o 



CD 

O 

^3 



'8 



the floor level to the top of the cornice, 
4 ft. 1 \ in. wide between the brickwork of the 
recess, and 9 in. deep between the faces of 
the brickwork reveal. Begin as before with 
the rod by setting out the brickwork 4 ft. 



\\ in., allowing J in. on each face for the 
plaster a a. The brickwork on the right- 
hand side is part of the side wall of the 
room, while that on the left hand is part 
of the side of the chimney breast, which is 




Fig. 989. — Detail of Cornice of Recess Cupboard. 

hi u 
4.0* » 




Fig. 990. — Elevation of Recess Cupboard Front. 




Fig. 991. 



Detail of Angle Stile to Chimney 
Breast. 



9 in. deep. Fill in a line f- in. from the 
chimnev breast to represent the face of the 
plaster at b. Next draw a line parallel with 
the edge of the rod, and J in. from the face 
of the plaster b, to represent the face of the 
cupboard framing c. Draw a parallel line 



JOINERS' RODS. 



305 




1| in. from the last, 
to represent 1J in. 
front, finishing the 
line on right-hand 
side at the brick- 
work, and on the 
left-hand side at the 
face of the plaster. 
Fill in the stile and 
angle bead d with the 
mould seen at Fig. 
991. The stiles must 
be set out to the 
figured dimensions. 
The doors are hung 
folding in two widths, 
the centre of the 
rebate being equidis- 
tant from the outer 
hanging stiles. 

Square across the 
sight lines of the 
framing from the 
edge of the rod, and 
fill in the panels | in. 
thick and f in. from 
the face of the door 
framing. If moulding 
is required, the' panel 
will need to be set 
back accordingly. 
Turn the rod over, 
and set out the 
height as shown in 
the section (Fig. 988). 
The height being 7 ft,, 
square a line across 
the rod at each end 
to represent it, and 
draw the face and 
thickness lines paral- 
lel as before. Work- 
ing from the dimen- 
sions given on the 
width rod (Fig. 987), 
the height from the 
floor to the top of 
the lower doors will 
be 2 ft. 9 in., these 
being surmounted by 
a 3-in. dividing rail. 
Fill in the beads on 
the edges of the 



306 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



horizontal rails, and project the top of the driven into the joints of the brickwork, 

cupboard sufficiently to take the moulding When fixed they form a stop for the doors, 

shown at Fig. 989, which forms a cornice, The left-hand doors are secured by necked 

and returns into and stops on the face of the bolts fixed on the inside and shot into the 




Fig. 995. — Width Rod showing Sectional Plan of Linen Press on 
Line A A (Fig. 993). 



Fig. 996.— Width Rod showing Sectional Plan of Linen Press on 
Line B B (Fig. 993). 




Fig. 998. — Detail of Front 
of Tray of Linen Press. 





Fig. 997.— Detail of Meet- 
ing Stiles of Doors of 
Linen Press. 




Rod 2 



Fig. 999.— Height Rod, showing Vertical Section of Linen Press on Line C C (Fig. 995). 



plaster as seen at Fig. 990, or on the face upper face of the shelf. Figs. 987 and 988 
of the top rail. The shelves are conveni- are drawn to a scale of § in. to the foot, 
ently distanced apart, and are generally Fig. 990 to a scale of J in. to the foot, the re- 
fixed on fillets or bearers, secured to plugs maining figures being one-third full size. 



JOINERS' RODS. 



30'; 



Rods for Linen Press. 

Figs. 992, 993, and 994 show respectively 
an external elevation, an internal elevation, 
and an end elevation of a linen press. The 
interior, as will be seen, is fitted up with 




Fig. 1000.— Detail of Section through Drawer of 
Linen Press. 




Fig. 1001. — Detail of Cornice of Linen Press. 

drawers and trays, the former being arranged 
at the bottom and the latter at the top. 
The press is 7 ft. high, 5 ft. wide, and 2 ft. 
deep, and the front is formed by a pair of 
five-panelled moulded doors. The cornice 
is made separate, and drops on the top of 
the carcase. Take a rod 8 ft. long and 2 ft. 
6 in. wide, and proceed to set out the plans, 
shown at Figs. 995 and 996. Fig. 995 is a 
horizontal sectional plan at a a (Fig. 993), 
and Fig. 996 is a similar plan at b b (Fig. 
993), showing the drawers. Draw the outer 
lines in the usual manner, and take a mould, 
similar to that shown by Fig. 997, and fill 



in the position of the door stiles ; add the 
panels and moulding. The ends are framed 
together with solid panels, the bead being 
flush on the outside. Fill in the stiles and 
the tongues and beads on the panels, and 
allow J in. for the panelled framing at the 




Fig. 1002.— Detail of Plinth of Linen Press. 



\E~- 



i-<1 



Fig. 1003.— Detail showing Dovetail Runner 
with Dovetailed Front and Endjto Tray. 

back. Divide the press up as shown in 
Fig. 996, making the panels flush on the 
inside. The double lines shown on the in- 
side of the framing at Fig. 995 represent 
the thickness of the sides of the tray, which 
is | in. (see detail Fig. 998). These trays 
are made of mahogany, and have holes cut 
in the front for the hand, as shown at Fig. 
993. Turn over the rod and set out the plan 
of the drawers. The length is 2 ft. 4 J in. 
between the standard and ends. Let the 
drawers stand back 1 in. from the face edge 
of the end to give room for the drop handle. 
On another rod (2) set out the vertical 



308 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



section, shown at Fig. 999. Divide up the door, the square on the upper edge of the 
spaces'as hgured in. A detail of the drawer plinth forming a margin along the front and 
in section is given at Fig. 1000 ; a similar ends. Fig. 1003 shows the front d and the 




detail of the tray is shown at Fig. 998 ; a 
detail of the cornice at Fig. 1001 ; and the 
plinth at Fig. 1002. It will be noticed that 
the r bottom projects sufficiently from the 
face of the ends to take the thickness of the 



end e of a tray, dotted lines representing the 
dovetails. The top edge of the rim is 
mitred at the angles, and the" hardwood 
runner f is dovetailed into the end G and 
stopped 2 in. from the face edge of the end 



JOINERS' RODS. 



309 




310 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



of the carcase. Figs. 992 to 996 and Fig. 
999 are drawn to a scale of^J in. to the foot ; 
the remaining figures are one-third full 
size. 




-Detail of Portable Cupboard at C 
(Fig. 1006). 



Rods for Portable Cupboard. 

Figs. 1004 and 1005 show a portable cup- 
board adapted for glass and china. Two 
heights are given for this cupboard, but 



and each compartment is 2 ft. 10J in. in the 
clear, with l|-in. ends and division standards, 
which stand flush with the face of the doors 




Fig. 1011.— Detail of Portable Cupboard at B 
(Fig. 1008). 

in each case. The width from back to front 
of the lower part, exclusive of the projection 
of the top, is 2 ft. ; the upper one is 13 in. 




Fig. 1010.— Detail of Portable Cupboard at D (Fig. 1006). 



each is complete in itself, and each is divided 
into three compartments, with folding doors 
to the upper part and sliding doors to the 
lower. The back of the cupboard is com- 
posed of f-in. V-jointed matching in narrow 
widths, the top, bottom, and ends being 
rebated to receive it. The ends of the lower 
cupboard are panelled ; those of the upper 
one are solid. The extreme width of the 
cupboard is 9 ft., exclusive of the projection, 



The height from floor level to the top of the 
lower part is 2 ft. 10 in. ; the upper part 
from top to top, 4 ft. 2 in., making in all 7 ft. 
The shelves are divided equally, 9J in. and 
11 J in. respectively. Prepare moulds for 
each separate part to details, and retain for 
future use. Take a rod 2 ft. 4 in. wide and 
10 ft. long, and set out the plan of the upper 
and lower cupboards as in Figs. 1006 and 
1007, one on each side. Begin by drawing 



JOINERS' RODS. 



311 



all the outer lines, and work inwards. Prepare 
a slip J in. thick and 1J in. wide, the finished 
thicknesses of the outer standards or ends 
and divisions. Divide the plan into three 
equal parts, as shown, 2 ft. 10 J in. in the 
clear. From the face line a (Fig. 1006) draw 
lines at distances figured in detail in Fig. 



I- 



Fig. 1012. 



Sketch of Roller for Portable 
Cupboard. 




Fig. 1013.— Detail of Portable Cupboard at F 
(Fig. 1008). 

1008 — |- in. for bead, 1J in. for front door, 
| in. for parting bead, 1J in. for back door 
— form the tongue, and groove in the stiles 
as shown in detail in Fig. 1009. Fill in the 
stiles and panels as in Fig. 1010. Mark along 
the back the spaces indicating the widths 
of the matched lining. Turn the rod over 
and set out Fig. 1007 in the same way. Take 
another rod the same length, 2 ft. 4 in. 
wide, and set out the section or height, fol- 
lowing the same rules as before. This is 
shown on rod 2 (Fig. 1008). Arrange the 
lower sliding doors as shown in Fig. 1011. 
The roller (Fig. 1012) is fitted into the bottom 



edge of the door ; two are fixed to each door, 
the face of the roller being flush with the 
edge. The brass strip e, fixed with screws, 
is let in flush with the bottom or pot board, 
and forms a runner. The beads must be 




1014.— Mould for Scotia of Portable 
Cupboard. 



shown slack with the door, because if the 
latter is fixed tight it will not work freely. 
The thicknessing piece f (Fig. 1008), shown 
in detail in Fig. 1013, is continuous, and is 
intended to strengthen the top, so that any 
extra weight put upon it may not interfere 
with the easy working of the doors. Fig. 
1014 shows the mould for the Scotia. Figs. 
1004 and 1005 are drawn to a scale of J in. to 
the foot, Figs. 1006 to 1008 to a scale of £ in. 
to the foot, and the remaining figures one- 
third full size. 



DOORS AND DOOR FRAMES. 



Varieties of Common Doors. 

Common doors are constructed in a number 
of styles. The principal three are the fol- 
lowing, which are presented in the order of 
their cost and strength : the ledged door 



for doors are given in the section on joiners' 
rods (see pp. 289 to 311), and these in- 
structions will form a basis from which to 
prepare rods for any of the doors here men- 
tioned. 






Fig. 1015. Fig. 1016. 
Fig. 1015. — Back of Ledged Door 



Fig. 1017. Fig. 1018. Fig. 1019. Fig. 1020. 

Fig. 1016.— Back Edge of Ledged Door. Fig. 1017.— Front 
of Ledged Door. Fig. 1018.— Front Edge of Ledged Door. Fig. 1019.— Back of Ledged 
and Braced Door. Fig. 1020.— Section of Ledged and Braced Door. 



(Figs. 1015 to 1018) ; the ledged and braced 
door (Figs. 1019 to 1022) ; and the framed and 
braced narrow batten door (Figs. 1023 to 
1026). With regard to the setting out of 
these, instructions on preparing joiners' rods 



Ledged Doors and Frame. 

The construction of one of the simplest 
and commonest forms of ledged door and 
frame is illustrated by inside and outside 



312 



DOORS AND DOOR FRAMES. 



313 




ob q 



Fig. 1021. 



Fig. 1022. 




Fig. 1023. Fig. 1024. 



Fig. 1025. Fig. 1026. 



Fig. 1021. 
of Ledged 



-Front of Framed and Braced Door. Fig. 1022.— Section through Stile. ""[Fig. 1023.— Back 
and Braced Door. Fig. 1024. — Vertical Section through Door. Fig. 1025. — Front of 

Ledged and Braced Door. Fig. 1026. — Elevation of Shutting Edge. 



elevations and edge view at Figs. 1027 to [ 
1029. The frame is quite square without any 
beads and stops, the door overhanging and 
shutting against the outer faces of the jambs. 
Only a few chief points in the preparing, 
making, and fixing of the frame will here 
be explained, because the general processes 
involved in the making are somewhat 
similar, although perhaps not requiring 
the same degree of accuracy as for more im- 
portant doors and frames. The leading 
operations in the making of these will be 
described fully in the examples that will 
follow. The head and jambs of the frame 
are generally made of scantling 3 in. by 
2 in. or more. This should be of good red 
deal for external work, and when there is a 
wood sill it should be of English oak. The 
three or four pieces composing the frame are 
planed up, the jambs or posts are then set 
out from the rod marking the shoulders 
and tenons at the top end, and a scribe line 
is drawn at the bottom for fitting to the 
stone sill ; or if the sill is of wood the posts 
are marked for tenons. The head is set 

14 



h 



" 



Fig 1027. 



Fig. 1028. 



Fig. 1029. 



Fig. 1027. — External Elevation of Ledged Door and 
Frame. Fig. 1028.— Vertical Section. Fig. 
1029. — Inside Elevation. 



314 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



out for either a close or a slot mortice ; the 
latter is the one shown in this example 
(Fig. 1030). As there are no stops or beads 
to work on the frame, the setting out is 




Fig. 1030. — Slot Mortice and Tenon Joint between 
Head and Jamb. 



very simple. After the jambs are made and 
fitted, they should be draw-bored for draw- 
pinning ; the process is often termed draw- 
boring. This is done by boring through the 
cheeks of the mortice as indicated at Fig. 
1031, using a J-in. or f-in. auger. The 
shoulders of the joint are then put together, 




Fig. 1031. — Method of Bering for Draw-pinning. 

and a marking awl (or pricker) is used in the 
hole of the cheek to make a mark in the tenon 
as indicated at a (Fig. 1031), where it will 
be seen that this mark is_made against J}he 



side of the hole of the cheek and on a line 
about 45 degrees from the centre. This 
mark a shows the centre for the hole to be 
bored in the tenon. If the holes in the 
cheeks and the tenon are bored thus, the 
pin, when driven in, tends to draw together 
the shoulders of the joint and also the side 
of the tenon against the end of the mortice. 
Another method largely adopted, but not 
so good, is to cramp the joints together ; 
then at one operation bore through cheeks 
and tenon, and drive in the prepared pin. 
In very common door frames a couple of 
3-in. or 4-in. nails are driven obliquely 
into the top of the frame-head, the nails 
passing into the tenon and shoulders. 
Usually a piece of wood is nailed across the 
lower part of the jambs so as to keep them 
parallel until the frame is fixed across in its 
place. Before being put together, the parts 




Fig. 1032.— Detail of Hook and Plate Hinge. 

of the joints are generally painted, which, 
for exposure to the weather, is considered 
more durable than gluing. 

Fixing the Door Frame. 

This class of door frame is largely used 
for outbuildings, and when these are built 
of brick or stone, the frame is usually placed 
in its position and held by one or two raking 
struts so as to keep it plumb and firm until 
the brickwork or masonry is built around 
it. Usually the head-piece is made to pro- 
ject a few inches beyond the posts, as in- 
dicated in the illustrations. These projec- 
tions are called " horns " and are useful 
for bonding into the brickwork. When 
there is a wood sill it is similarly shaped. 
As the brickwork is built up, two or three 
wood bricks are built in as a joint between 
two courses. These wood bricks may be 
peices of 3 in. by 4 in. by 6 in. or 9 in. long, 
or pieces about J in. thick, 4 in. wide, and 



DOORS AND DOOR FRAMES. 



315 



j 4 in. to 9 in. long. These are built in the 
I brickwork against the frame, which is nailed 
to them. 

Preparing- the Ledged Door. 

The vertical boards for the door vary 
from 3 in. to 7 in. in width, the narrower 



then beaded, or the meeting edges are cham- 
fered to form a V joint. (See page 62, Fig. 
263.) The ledges are next prepared and 
chamfered as shown in Figs. 1028 and 1029. 
Two pieces of quartering are laid across the 
bench, and the boards are placed face down- 
wards on these. The cramp is applied, 




ss 






; : l 


^= 


S2 




1 






















i 


























1 


/ 




















i 


















f 


* 
















, 




















/ 


/ 


















, ' 


/ 










? 








/ 


/ 










| 






/ 

/ 
/ 


/ 

1 


/ 










J 












Wx 

>- 


























/ 


/ 
















/ 


, 






























1 








/ 
/ 


/ 
















/ 

/ 


/ 
















"-<-- 
















1 




















i 








































Fig. 1033. 



Fig. 1035. 



Fig. 1031. 



Fig. 1033. — Inside Elevation of Ledged. and Braced Door. Fig. 1034. — Outside Elevation of Ledged. 

and Braced Door. Fig. 1035. — Vertical Section of Ledged and Braced Door. 



being better, as when shrinkage occurs 
there is less space between the joints with 
the narrower boards. The thickness varies 
from f in. to \\ in. The boards are faced 
up, thicknessed, and jointed ; then ploughed 
and tongued, or more frequently grooved 
and tongued. One edge of each board is 



and then lines are squared across to show 
the position of the ledges, the cramp being 
applied near each ledge, so as to keep the- 
joints of the boards close, and these are 
secured by a few nails or preferably screws. 
The door is now turned over face side up 
and lined out for nailing. Care is taken to 



316 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



space the nails in diagonal lines so as not 
to split either boarding or ledges. A piece 
of waste wood is placed under each ledge 
in turn during nailing. Wrought-iron nails 




the hammer and punch ; thus the nails are 
clenched. In doing this the punch must 
be held slanting so as not to drive the nails 
back. The top and bottom of the door 
should be sawn square and planed. 

Hanging- the Door. 

This door is cut off level at the bottom, 
and it does not require fitting between the 




Fig. 1036. — Joint between Sill and Post. 



Fig. 1038. 



-Alternative Method of Joining Head 
and Post. 



are often used sufficiently long to project 
beyond the face of the ledges after being 
punched in from the face. The points of 
these nails penetrate into the piece of waste 
wood so as to prevent splitting pieces out 
of the ledges. The door is again turned 



jambs. The hinges shown are of the hook 
and plate pattern, a detail of which is given 
at Fig. 1032. These are screwed on in the 
positions illustrated, care being taken to 
keep an equal margin of the lap of the door 
over the frame. 




Fig. 1037. — Joint between Head and Post. 

over, and the points of the nails are bent 
over by means of the nail punch and 
hammer, and in the form of a hook. They 
are then driven slightly below the surface by 




Fig. 1039.— Joint between Brace and Ledge. 

Ledged and Braced Door and 
Frame. 

A door and frame of this description is 
shown by Figs. 1033 to 1039. The chief 
points in the preparing and fixing of this 
door and frame will now be explained. It 
will be seen from the figures that the frame 
is beaded round the inner edge, and that 
the beaded stops are nailed on. 



DOORS AND DOOR FRAMES. 



317 



Preparing- the Door Frame. 

All the stuff should be carefully planed up 
out of winding and square, and the oak 
sill is slightly splayed. Place the two posts 
face sides together and face edges out- 
wards, as indicated at Fig. 1040. Then 



setting out for the shoulder as well as the 
gauging should be completed as shown at 
Fig. 1041. The rod should be applied and 
the frame head set out for mortising as 
shown at Figs. 1042 and 1043. The former 
shows the setting out on the soffit of the 
head and the latter the top side of the head, 



£d 





Fig. 1040.— Setting Out Posts for Shoulders. 



Fig. 1045.— Mortice and Tenon 
Joint Wedged. 



/ i / 


A 


/ 


/ \ 






'/ i 


A 


/ r 


/ 


% 


w 



Fig. 1041. — Setting Out Head for Mortices. 




7Z~ZZ/ 



'/ // 




Fig. 1042.— Setting Out on Soffit Fig. 1043.— Setting Out on Top Fig. 1046.— Draw-boring Mortice 
of Head. of Head. and Tenon. 

in which allowance is made for the necessary 
wedging if the mortices are to be closed. 
Next the mortices are made and the tenons 
cut. The shoulder must not be cut until 
the beading is done. The bead should now 
be worked on the inner edge of the posts 
and the head. The shoulders should be 
cut, and the part between the head and 
mortice sawn out and pared as shown at 
a (Fig. 1044) ; then with a mitre template 
and chisel form the mitre as indicated. 
The beads at the top of the post should also 
be mitred as shown at b (Fig. 1037). The 
joints should be fitted, painted, cramped to- 
gether, and wedged as shown at Fig. 1045. 
If the joint is draw -bored and pinned, the 
holes should be made on the cheeks of the 
mortice as indicated by the circle c (Fig. 




Fig. 1044.— Mitering Bead. 

apply the rod and mark off for the shoulders 
at top and bottom. The splay for the sill 
(Fig. 1036) must be allowed for as shown 
at a (Fig. 1040). The inner shoulder d 
must be carried beyond the outer one c, 
so as to allow for the bead on the inner edges 
of the frame (Figs. 1037 and 1038). The 



318 



CAEPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



1046), and the hole in the tenon as indi- 
cated by the circle d, partly shown by 
dotted line. It will be noticed that the 
end of the tenon (Fig. 1046) projects slightly 
and is also chamfered off. This allows the 
tenon to enter the mortice easily, and the 
projection allows a little extra strength be- 
hind the pin. The projecting part is gener- 
ally sawn off at the time of fixing. 

Forming the Stops. 

The stops are prepared by facing up a 
board, shooting the edge, setting a gauge 




Fig. 1047.— Preparing Beaded Stop. 

to; the breadth of the stop, and gauging as 
shown at a (Fig. 1047). A J-in. or f-in. 
bead is next planed along the edge, forming 
as shown. A saw-cut is now made just out- 
side the gauge line (Fig. 1047), then the 
edge is planed just down to the line. Any 
projection left beyond the quirk, as indi- 
cated at b (Fig. 1047), is removed by planing, 
and thus the stop is brought to thickness as 
shown at Fig^l048. The stops are next 
mitred at each corner of the head, as indi- 
cated at c and d (Fig. 1037). These may 
be painted at the back and nailed on at the 




Fig. 1048.— Preparing Beaded Stop. 

bench, or just tacked on temporarily and 
finally fixed at the time of hinging the door. 
These door frames are usually built in the 
walls as explained on p. 314 in describing 
the previous example. The making of this 
\oot would be a somewhat similar process 
co making the ledged door, except that 
braces are introduced to prevent the door 
dropping out of square. The method of 



joining the braces to the ledges is shown 
clearly at Fig. 1039. Of course, the braces 
are nailed to the boards. This door is 
hung with cross-garnet hinges, also known 
as T hinges. A rim lock and staple are 
shown. The methods of fitting and fixing 
these will be explained in a subsequent 
example. 

Framed and Braced Door and 
Frame. 

The general details of a door and frame 
of this description are shown at Figs. 1049 
to 1061. All the chief measurements are 
figured on the illustrations. The chief 
points to notice in preparing the frame are 
that it is rebated out of the solid, and beaded 
inside and outside, this involving more care 
in setting out. At a in Fig. 1057 part of the 
rod is represented, and at b the top part 
of a post is shown raised above, and the 
projectors show the relation of the rod to 
the setting out on the post. It will be 
noticed that the shoulder lines are not in the 
same plane, and each is marked long enough 
to fit against the quirks of the beads in the 
heads of the frame. Fig. 1058 shows the 
top part of the post gauged for the rebate, 
and with the tenon cut. The depth of the 
rebate is usually J in. to f in. The head 
should next be set out from the rod. This 
is shown at Fig. 1060 ; a and b indicating 
the mitre lines for the beads. 

Rebating- the Frame. 

The next operation would be the rebating, 
which may be done in several ways. Only 
one will be explained here, and other methods 
will be treated of in other examples. With a 
plough fitted with a f-in. or J-in. iron, make 
a groove on the face of the post, as indicated 
at a (Fig. 1059). Next chisel away the 
greater part of the waste, using a mallet ; 
then the rebate may be finished with a rebate 
plane and a trying and smoothing plane. 
But a quicker and better result can be ob- 
tained by using a panel plane, if one is 
available, than by using a rebate plane and 
trying plane. The beads should next be 
stuck. Usual sizes are : for the inside, J in. 
to f in. ; for the outside, J in. to f in. 

In fitting the tenon it will be seen (Fig. 
1056) that this projects both into the rebate 



DOORS AND DOOR FRAMES. 



319 



and stop part of the head, and therefore to 
save making two tenons (which will be shown 
in another example) it is pared back flush 
with the rebate as shown at a (Fig. 1056). 
In this case the beads are mitred only J in. 




Fig. 1049. 

Fig. 1049. — Joint at A (Fig. 1062), showing Bare- 
faced Double Tenons. Fig. 1050. — Joint 
at B (Fig. 1062) showing Barefaced Double 
Tenons. Fig. 1051.— Joint at C (Fig. 1062). 

or so in, and then the parts c and d are 
cut so as to butt against the corresponding 
parts on the head, as shown at c and D (Fig. 
1056). The wedging up, finishing, and 
fixing of this door frame would be done in 
the same way as explained for previous exam- 
ples. The bottom of the post is shown at Fig. 
1055 with a square metal dowel partly 
inserted, the other portion projecting to be 
received by a hole cut in the stone sill. 



Making the Door. 

The chief features to be noticed in the con- 
struction of the door will now be given. 
Having planed up the stuff out of winding, 
and to a thickness and breadth for the fram- 
ing of the door, the stiles would be set out 
from the rod for the mortices. These would 
have to correspond with the tenons as 
shown at Figs. 1049 to 1051, where they are 
shown notched at a and b, because of the 
small rebates made to receive the short 
tenons of the braces. If the braces were cut 
in nearly square, this would not be neces- 
sary. The stiles and top rails are ploughed 




Fig. 1052. — Joints of Boarding Grooved and 
Tongued and Beaded. 




Fig. 1053. — Joints of Boarding when Rebated and 
Beaded. 




Fig. 1054. — Joints of Boarding when Ploughed 
and Tongued, and showing a V-joint on eacfc 
side. 

to receive tongues on the boarding as shown. 
The bottom and middle rails have double 
tenons with shoulders on one side only, 
known as barefaced tenons. This is to allow 
the boarding to pass down in front of them, 
and also to be nailed to them. The in- 
side of the framing is stop -chamfered as 
shown at Fig. 1064. The boarding may be 
of any of the forms shown by Figs. 1052, 
1053, or 1054, or a V-joint may replace the 
beads shown at Fig. 1052. The boarding 
should be fitted in accurately before wedging 
up the framing. After this it should be 
nailed to the bottom and middle rails. Other 
particulars of preparing the mortices, 



320 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



fitting, wedging up, finishing, etc., being 
common to many examples of joiners' work, 
will be fully treated in the cases which follow. 




Fig. 1055.— Bottom of Door Post with Metal 
Dowel for Fixing to Stone Sill. 




Fig. 1056. 



-Joint between Post and Head of 
Frame. 




Fig. 1057. 



Showing Top of Post Set Out from 
Rod. 



Hanging and Fastening. 

This form of door would be hung with 
4-in. to 5-in. wrought butt hinges, 
the lower one being fixed about 11 in. from 



the bottom, so that the screws should not 
be too near a tenon, the top butt being 
6 in. or 7 in. down. Doors of this kind 
are often hung with three butts, the third 




Fig. 1058. — Post Gauged for Rebating and Tenons 
Cut. 




Fig. 1059. — Post Ploughed for Rebate shown at 
A ; Rebate completed shown at B. 




Fig. 1060. — One End of Head of Frame Set Out. 




Fig. 1061.— One End of Head of Frame 
completed. 



being central. Heavier doors of this class 
are usually hung with some form of hook 
and strap hinges, of which there are various 
kinds. Fastenings for this door are : A 
Norfolk latch, and a dead lock, which is a lock 
without a spindle and handles. 



DOORS AND DOOR FRAMES. 



321 




























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322 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 





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Large Framed and Braced Door. 

The construction of a single framed and 
braced door, such as is often used for stables, 
archway entrances, etc., is shown in Figs. 
1065 to 1067. The finished dimensions are : 
Door, 8 ft. high and 6 ft, wide ; stiles, 



6 in. by 2J in. ; top rail, 6| in. by 2J in. ; 
bottom rail, 10| in. by 2J in. ; middle iail, 
lOf in. by If in. ; boarding, 1J in. ; braces, 
6 in. by If in. The joints connecting the 
stiles and rails are shown by Figs. 1068 and 
1069. At the connection of the m'ddle rail 
and stile barefaced tenons are shown. The 



DOORS AND DOOR FRAMES. 



323 



bottom and top rails finish flush with the 
outside of the stiles, and the joint between 
these and the boards forming the panel is 
broken by means of a bead, as shown by 



it is preferred to form short barefaced stub 
tenons on the lower ends of the braces, and 
let these fit into corresponding mortices in the 
rails and stiles. Strong hinges are necessary 




Fig. 1068.— Joints between Rails and Stiles. 

Fig. 1070. The plough groove is so arranged 
as to have one side of it in the same plane as 
the mortices. The braces butt against the rail 
and stile at their lower ends, and their upper 







Fig. 1069.— Joint between Brace and Rail. 

ends are lapped and joggled in as illustrated 
at the bottom of Fig. 10G9. It is frequently 
considered sufficient merely to butt the ends 
of these braces as described, but sometimes 




Fig. 1070.— Conventional Detail of Corner of 
Door at A, B, C (Fig. 1065). 




Fig. 1071. — Outside Elevation of Stable Doors. 




Fig. 1072. — Horizontal Section of Stable Doors. 

for this door. These may be specially made 
by a good smith, but excellent hinges for the 
purpose are Collinge's patent. 



324 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



Frameless Stable Doors. 

In many country districts — particularly 
in certain parts of Shropshire — wood frames 
to stable doors are often dispensed with, 
it' being urged against them that they are 
apt to become loose, and that rot is apt to 



the doors. The exterior and interior jambs 
have rounded bull-nosed bricks, to prevent 
injury to the horses passing in and out of the 
doorway. Fig. 1078 shows the method used 
for door jambs where 9-in. walls are erected, 
the 14-in. jambs being formed as a pier, and 
then reduced to the 9 in. The doors should 





Pig. 1073.— Vertical Fig. 1074. — Inside Elevation of Stable 



Section of Stable 
Doors. 



Doers. 



Fig. 1075.— Part Exterior Ele- 
vation showing Central Pier 
where Doors Meet. 





Fig. 1076.— Plan of Pier, etc. Fig. 1077.— Enlarged Detail Fig. 1078.— Horizontal Section of 

(Fig. 1075). Plan of Hook Stone. 14-in. Brick Pier and Jamb. 



set in towards the bottom when the frame is 
let into the step. Figs. 1071 to 1078 show 
frameless doors, Fig. 1071 being the front 
elevation of a door in two leaves. The 
hinge-hooks and latch-hooks are leaded in 
the stone and built in the brick jambs as 
the work proceeds. Figs. 1072 and 1073 
show the brick jambs rebated to receive 



be of good sound and dry red deal, framed, 
ledged, and braced as shown. The two 
stiles and the top rail are of equal thick- 
ness — namely, 2J in. ; the other rails and 
braces are only 1J in., and are flush on the 
rear side of the framing, and so arranged that 
the f-in. sheeting when nailed to them is 
flush on the face side. The upper ends and 



DOORS AND DOOR FRAMES. 



325 







_ 







ho a) 

00 g 

s <3 

fab 

G 



outside edge of the sheeting are tongued into 
a. groove running round the framing. All 
joints in these doors should be painted, and 
not glued ; and this remark applies also to 
all the edges and tongues in the joints of 



the sheeting. The wrought-iron straps and 
latches should be strong, and secured with 
bolts and nuts. Take care that the hinges 
and hooks are so fixed that the doors will 
open and lie back against the face of the wall. 



326 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



Large Framed and Braced Sliding 
Door. 

Sliding doors and gates of this description 
are often used for coach-houses, entrances 
to factory yards, and similar purposes. 
They have no frame, the opening being 
formed by the brickwork and a wooden 
lintel, which is often flitched as shown 
(Fig. 1081). The general construction would 
be similar to the last example (Fig. 1065) , 
except, as will be noticed, the rails are of the 




Fig. 1083. — Conventional View of Upper Rail, 
Wheel, and Strap (Fig. 1082). 

same thickness as the stiles, although some- 
times the bottom rail may be thinner, so as 
to allow the boarding to extend down ; also 
the middle rail may be treated in the same 
way. To prevent any chance of racking, 
four braces are introduced. The important 
parts to notice are : To facilitate sliding, a 
rail shown in section by Fig. 1084 has screws 
inserted at intervals in the under side. A 
groove is cut into the stone floor to the 
shape shown, the rail is then placed in posi- 
tion, and molten lead is run in. Reference 
to Figs. 1079, 1081, and 1084 shows that the 
door does not touch the ground ; therefore to 
enable the rail to take some of the weight a 
couple of grooved wheels are fixed to the 
door, the axles are cast on the solid, and their 



ends work in slots cut in the iron boxes. 
Fig. 1085 shows a sectional view of one of 
these boxes and wheels. To fix them, 
sockets should be cut to the depth of a box ; 
four stout screws will hold each in position. 

Preparing Joiners' Work principally 
by Hand. 

The following particulars treat of some 
of the most usual methods adopted by 
joiners in the cutting out, planing up, set- 
ting out, and finishing at the bench, doors, 
panelled framing, and bench work gener- 
ally. After setting out the rod, careful note 





Fig. 1085. — Conventional 

Sectional View of Box 

and Wheel. 



Fig. 1084.— Vertical 

Section through Lower 

Rail, Wheel and Box. 

must be taken of the number of pieces 
required, together with their sizes. When 
dealing with a large piece of framing, it is 
well to write down these particulars. The 
stuff should next be carefully selected and 
lined out for the various pieces. Although 
this may seem a simple matter, it often re- 
quires a great deal of judgment. So much 
is this a fact that, in large shops, a leading 
hand or deputy foreman is appointed speci- 
ally for this work, an arrangement that is 
undoubtedly advantageous to the firm. The 
stuff should next be cut down the grain with, 
a rip saw, and across the grain with a panel 
or hand saw. 

Trying Up. — Most joiners, before putting 
a plane on timber, brush the latter with a 
little wire brush kept on the bench for the 
purpose. This removes all the grit from 



DOORS AND DOOR FRAMES. 



327 



the beard of the wood, and prevents the 
plane-iron getting notched. Before planing, 
if there is a black end, cut it ,off or remove 
with a chisel the arris or edge from the end 
at which a start will be made, as indicated 
at Fig. 1086 ; this will obviate notching the 
irons with dirt brought, perhaps, from the 
timber perch. In executing all framed work 
the trying up is the most important process. 
Having brushed away the grit, test for 
winding. Use a pair of boning or winding 
strips ; these are two pieces of stuff about 
12 in. long, 2 in. wide, and J in. thick ; place 
one on each end of the stile as it lies on the 
bench. Look along the top edges of these 
as indicated at Fig. 1086, and thus discover 



continuing the tried-up mark on this also, 
as shown on Fig. 1087. Note* that these 
tried-up edges and faces must always be used 
to gauge and to square from. To ascertain 
whether the edge is shot straight, use a long 
straight-edge, or lift the end of the stile near- 
est the worker to the level of one of the eyes, 
closing the other, when any inequality will 
be seen along the edge and must be planed 
off accordingly. Now gauge the stuff to 
breadth along its whole length, plane ofT 
down to the gauge mark (which must be left 
on), and put aside. Serve all the rest of 
the pieces in the same way, altering the 
gauge, of course, for the wider or narrower 
pieces. The stuff can now be gauged and 




Fig. 1086. — Application of Winding Strips. 



Fig. 1087. — Face and Face Edge Marks. 



how much the timber twists or is in winding. 
A practical joiner can test the stuff out of 
winding by the eye alone, or, if the stuff is 
very long, by laying his jack- and trying- 
plane at either end and boning from them. 
Take off the highest parts with the jack- 
plane, but do not scoop thick shavings off, 
or the framing will be too thin. Always 
leave from the jack-plane what a joiner calls 
a witness mark — that is, the faintest impres- 
sion of the weather stain or saw — before 
using the trying-plane. It is sometimes well 
to leave these marks showing after the trying- 
plane, to indicate that the stuff has not been 
planed too much. The trying-plane must be 
used until both the top edges of the winding 
strips are parallel with each other ; other- 
wise the framing will twist when wedged 
up. 

Completing the Trying-up. — When the 
face is true, put on the tried-up mark (see 
Fig. 1087), jack and shoot perfectly straight, 
and square the edge with the trying-plane, 



planed to thickness, or the back faces may 
be simply jacked off for the present. 

Setting Out Stiles. — One of the stiles 
should be placed on the rod, and the proper 
positions of the rails should be pricked 
off on the face edge, also marking off spaces 
to be allowed for in the cases of plough 
grooves, rebates, beads, mouldings, etc. 
The relation between the rod and marking 
off for the mortices on a stile for a top rail 
is clearly indicated by the projections at 
a and b (Fig. 1089). Now place the stiles 
in pairs with their face sides together, and 
face edges outwards, the ends of the lower 
one resting on two planes on a couple of 
blocks as shown at Fig. 1088. This facili- 
tates the use of the try square, as indicated. 
Through the marks pricked off from the rod, 
square down the edges as shown at Fig. 1088. 
When there are muntins they may be placed 
on the stiles and squared down for their 
shoulders when marking on the edges for 
the stiles, where they will meet the edges 



328 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



of the rails ; this is clearly shown at Fig. 
1088. The muntins can now be removed 




and scribed all round for the shoulders. The 
setting out on the edges for the mortices 
should be complete as shown at Fig. 1089 ; 



then by using the square and ticking off on 
the back arris, as indicated by the dotted 
lines, and also marking off about \ in. 
or f in. (according to the size of the work) 
for wedging, the back edges should be 
marked for the mortices as indicated at 
Fig. 1090. 

Setting Out Rails. — When there is a bottom 
rail, a middle rail, and a top rail, they usually 
are in panel framing, all of one length, and 
therefore the distances for shoulders, posi- 
tions for mortices and muntins, should be 
pricked off from the rod. The three rails 
can now be placed with their face edges 
outward, and then squared down as shown 
at Fig. 1091 at one operation. The lines 
b and g are for shoulders, a and h for haunch- 
ings, d and e for mortices for the muntins, 
and c and / positions where edges of munt- 
ins meet the rails, the distances between 
each pair of lines being y 1 ^ in. less than the 
depth of the ploughed groove, which usually 
ranges from f in. to f in. The setting out 
(without gauging) of the top rail is shown 
by Fig. 1092, of the middle rail by Fig. 
1093, and of the bottom rail by Fig. 1094 
respectively. The breadth of the tenons is 
next set out, and the waste parts removed 
as shown at Figs. 1095, 1096, and 1097, the 
cuts along the haunch lines a and b (Figs. 
1095 and 1096) being made with a bow saw. 
Some joiners prefer to cut through the 
whole breadth of the rail, and use the parts 
between the tenons for wedges, as indicated 
at Fig. 1099. Select a mortice chisel about 
one-third the thickness of the stuff, and set 
the teeth of a mortice gauge, so that the 
chisel just sinks between the points (see Fig. 
1098). Adjust the gauge stocks so that the 
teeth will be in a position to scribe the 
mortice in the desired place, which usually 
is in the centre of the stuff ; but there are, 
of course, exceptions to this rule. All the 
parts for mortices and tenons should now 
be gauged, taking care that the stock of the 
gauge is used always against the face side of 
the stuff. 

Making Mortice and Tenon Joints. — The 
next thing is to mortise the stiles with a 
mortice chisel and mallet. The mortices 
should be made halfway through from the 
back edges ; then the stiles should be turned 
over and mortised through from the face 



DOORS AND DOOR FRAMES. 



329 



Fig. 1089. — Setting Out for Mortices on Face 
Edges of Stiles : A shows part of Rod. 




Fig. 1090. — Setting Out Mortices on 

Back Edge of Stiles for Middle 

Rail. 



Fig. 1091. — Setting Out on 
Face Edge of Rails. 





Fig. 1092.— Top Rail Set Out for 
Shoulders, Haunchings, and Muntins. 



Fig. 1099. — Alternative 
Method of Preparing 
Tenons and Wedges. 



^=* 




^ 


\ 




p 














V 

/ 






Fig. 1093.— Middle Rail Set Out for 
Shoulders, Haunchings, etc. 



Fig. 1100.— Snows 

Double Tenons Set Out 

for Mortices for Lock 

Rail. 




Fig. 1094.— Bottom Rail Set Out 
for Shoulders, etc. 



A 





m 




Figs. 1095, 1096, and 1097.— One End of each Rail with Waste Fig. 1098.— Method of Setting 
removed, and completely Set Out ready for Tenon Cutting. Mortice Gauge to Chisel. 



330 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY 



edges. The wedging should be done care- 
fully from the back edges. Clean out these 
mortices by driving the core through from 
front to back with a slip of hard wood called 
a core-driver. Clean the mortices sparingly 
with a paring chisel, and the stiles are ready 
for ploughing. Now mortise the top, lock, 
and bottom rails. These mortices should go 
in only about 2 in., or 2J in., as the tenons 
of the muntins are only stumped in. Clean 
these mortices out, and the rails will then be 
ready for ploughing. For cutting tenons, 
put one of the rails in the bench screw, tilted 
as shown in Fig. 1101, and with a rip saw 
cut down the tenon just by the side of 
the gauge-mark, leaving half of it visible. 
Do not force the saw, but work it freely, 
and keep it parallel with the gauge-mark, 
both down the side and across the end. 
When the saw is down about 3 in., take out 
the rail and serve the opposite side of the 
tenon in the same way for about the same 
depth ; then, screwing the rail perfectly 
upright in the screw, connect the two saw 
kerfs, by nice easy strokes, and cut down 
to the shoulder ; serve all the rails and 
muntins like this. The two outside portions 
are called the tenon cheeks, and the inner 
portion the tenon. The tenon cheeks must 
not be cut off until later on. An experi- 
enced man can cut his tenons down straight 
away. With a plough-iron of the proper 
size, plough from the tried-up face the tried- 
up edges of the stiles from end to end, also 
the bottom edge of top rail, both edges of 
the middle rail, top edge of bottom rail, and 
both edges of top and bottom muntins. If 
the plough is set to the right depth, it is im- 
possible to go any deeper. The shoulders 
can now be cut with a tenon saw, leaving 
half the scribe line as when cutting the 
tenons, also under-cutting them the least 
bit so that the joints will come together close 
on the face. Having cut off all the tenon 
cheeks, if the rails have been cut through 
their whole breadth, as in Fig. 1099, prepare 
a strip of wood about 9 in. long and about 
T V in. narrower than the depth of the 
plough groove ; lay this on the shoulders 
just cut, and mark in lead pencil across 
the tenons a (Fig. 1099). The portions thus 
marked will form the haunchings to fit in the 
grooves (see Fig. 1099). Serve all the rails 



only like this, the muntin tenons being left 
from the plough. Next mark out the tenons 
as shown in Fig. 1099 ; but before cutting out 
the portions indicated by the dimensions, 
mark with lead pencil as many wedges as 
these portions will allow, as shown, and cut 
them down ; then, in cutting along the 
haunching lines with a bow saw, these 
wedges will fall out, and, when trimmed 
and pointed, can be utilised for wedging up 
the tenons, and will be the exact thickness 
necessary to fill the mortices. Just nip the 
extreme corner off each tenon with a chisel 
to give a start in the mortices, and put the 
framing temporarily together, and let it 
stand while the panels are prepared. It might 




Fig 1101.— Method of Fixing Rails in Screw for 
starting Saw Kerf of Tenons. 

be left for several months with advantage, 
and, if kept dry, all shrinkage would take 
place while all the shoulders were free. On 
wedging up, it would be thoroughly seasoned, 
and would remain a good job throughout its 
ordinary life as a door. 

Panels. — For ordinary work panels should 
be made from sound yellow pine, free from 
knots and shakes. Their dimensions can be 
measured from the framing. Cut them out 
in the rough, jack them over, and bend 
each one on the edge of the bench. If there 
should be a shake it will betray itself, and 
for a first-class job the panel would be re- 
jected ; for commoner work, however, 
these shakes should have a little whiting 
and glue rubbed in with a hammer and al- 
lowed to dry. Now try up the face and shoot 
one edge, not forgetting to put on the tried- 
up marks. With the panel gauge, scribe the 
finished width, which, to allow for swelling, 
must be about J in. less on each side than the 
actual width when finally driven home into 



DOORS AND DOOR FRAMES. 



331 



the plough grooves. Square and cut off both 
ends, allowing the J-in* play also. Make a 
mullet (Fig. 1102) from any odd bit of stuff 
ploughed with the iron used for the fram- 
ing. Slide this round the edge of each 
panel as it lies projecting a little over the 
edge of the bench, and it will indicate at 
once any place that will be tight when driven 
home, and which must be eased accordingly. 
The panels must fit the mullet without bind- 
ing. With a sharp smoothing plane, get very 
fine, smooth up both sides, and, with some 
fine glasspaper folded on a cork pad, rub 
both sides across the grain until a fine level 
surface is acquired. The panels may be put 
in by removing one stile at a time and 
gently driving them home with the hand. 
Gluing and Wedging-up Doors and 



squaring rod mentioned below is not so 
necessary when gluing up four-panel doors 
as for skeleton frames and doors containing 
very narrow rails. Carefully note that the 
rails are in their correct position, which can 
be seen by the marks on the stiles ; the rails 
can be regulated to these by a blow or two 
on their outer edge. This knocking may also 
be necessary to close the shoulders between 
the rails and muntins. Then, dipping the 
trimmed and pointed wedges in the glue, 
insert them just tight. It is then usual 
to drive the outer wedge, c or d\(Fig. 1103), 
most at first, so as to ensure the joints of 
the muntins being closed ; both wedges 
c and a are afterwards driven to hold the 
tenon and mortice. It may be necessary to 
give the muntins a knock or two to get 




Fig. 1102.— Mulleting Panels. 



Framing. — This is a two-handed job, and 
to carry it through the services of a mate 
on the other side of the bench will be neces- 
sary. Clear away all tools, etc., lay some 
scantling across the bench, place the door 
on these (see Fig. 1103, which shows the 
wedging up of a two-panel door), knock 
all shoulders about 3 in. apart, and then, 
with some thin hot glue, rub the haunch- 
ings, shoulders, and tenons with the brush. 
Also brush the glue in the mortices from 
the back edge. Turn the door quickly 
and serve the other side the same way. 
Knock the stiles up and put on a cramp, 
screwing up tight until all shoulders are up. 
The cramp should be placed in the centre 
of the middle rail, or, better still, two 
cramps should be in use one on either side 
•of the rail. The shoulders of the rails having 
been cut quite square, the door may be 
wedged up so that the shoulders fit. The 



them in their exact positions, but in doing 
this interpose a piece of wood between work 
and hammer to avoid bruises — a precaution 
which will also apply in knocking up the stiles 
and rails. Also have waste pieces for the 
cheeks of the cramp to screw against. 
Having finished wedging up, take off the 
cramp, oil the tenon saw with olive oil 
(not linseed), and cut off the projecting 
ends of the tenons and wedges. When the 
door or framing has stood for a day or two 
it will be ready for cleaning off in the 
manner described below. 

Cleaning Off. — When ready to clean off, 
lay the door or framing on the bench, and 
cut and nail two pieces of stuff between the 
horns at each end, so as to keep the door solid 
for planing. Clean the superfluous glue from 
the joints with a chisel, and try, smooth, and 
glasspaper the face side first. Now set the 
gauge to the thickness the door or framing 



332 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



is to be, which is the finished thickness, and 
run it down each edge, and clean off the 



some kinds of doors and framing have to 
be treated in a different way as regard?, the 




Fig. 1103. — Wedging up a Two-panel Door. 

other^"side, down to this gauge mark, in 
the same way. Of course, this last process 
of gauging is unnecessary if all the stuff is 
thickened as planed ; but for commoner 
work the method described is often adopted. 
Do not shoot the edges or cut the horns off 
the ends. This is done when the door is 
fitted and hung or the framing fixed. 

Planting Door Mouldings. — To plant the 
mouldings, get a length of ordinary ogee 
mould, see that it is quite clean ; if not, 
get some glasspaper and take out the rough 
parts ; then cut a mitre at one end.fpush 
it gently up into place, mark the opposite 
end, and cut that mitre to it. Lay this on 
the framing by the side where it is to go, and 
proceed to cut the rest in the same way. 
Note that these pieces will all be the dead 
length from shoulder to shoulder. Now 
place the end pieces in first, and then, plac- 
ing one of the side-piece mitres in position, 
bend the moulding over the fingers and 
spring it into position against the bottom 
one. When this is pressed and bradded 
down, both mitres will press home, and 
good mitres will be the result. Serve all the 
mouldings in the same way, and then brad 
in, taking care to keep the brads well 
bevelled from the worker, or the panel will 
be split and choked. Now drive in the 
brads with a small steel punch, and the door 
or framing is completed. As already stated, 




Fig. lioo. F ig 1107# 



Fig. 1104. — Half Elevation of a Battened Framed 
Door and Solid Frame in a Partition Wall. 
Fig. 1105.— Half Horizontal Section (Fig. 1104). 
Fig. 1106. — Half Elevation of a Door, Framed ■ 
Square out of Deal Stun 7 , with Solid Frame 
in a Partition Wall. Fig. 1107. — Half 

Horizontal Section (Fig. 1106). 



DOORS AND DOOR FRAMES. 



333 



panels and moulds, but they are all con- 
istructed in the same way as regards the 
framing. 

i Four = panelled Doors and Solid Frames 
in Partitions. 

Fig. 1104 is a half elevation and Fig. 1105 



half ^horizontal section of a battened 




5 in. by 3 in., tried up, and squared on three 
sides. The posts and head are mortised 
and tenoned together as represented at 
Fig. 1108. The upper part of the post a, 
above the head, is reduced on each side by 
about J in., as shown, thus making it the 
same thickness as the bricknogging or 
studding of the partition. Each side is 



Fig. 1108. — Joint between Post and Head. 




Fig. 1109.— Joint of Middle Rail 
and Stile. 

square-framed door, 6 ft. 6 in.^high by 2 ft. 
6 in. wide, with solid wrought frame and 
stops a nailed on, and 3-in. by lj-in. square 
and splayed architrave. Doors and frames 
of this description are often used for 
attics and small houses, and for openings in 
studded or bricknogged partitions. 

The Frame. — This usually forms a part 
of Hhe partition, and is made of stuff about 



Fig. 1110. 




Fig. nil. 



Figs. 



1110 and 1111. — Details of Joints between 
Post and Head of Frame. 



generally finished by fixing some form of 
plain architrave, as shown at b (Fig. 1105), 
which projects over the plastering as indi- 
cated. The stop a is square-edged and 
nailed on. 

The Door. — This is frequently made out 
of battens 7 in. by 1^ in., used full width at 
the bottom and middle rails, and sawn down 
the centre to make the top rails, muntins, 



334 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 




Fig. 1114. — Elevation of Four-panel Framed and Moulded Door 
with Linings, etc., in Partition. 




Fig. 1115.— Horizontal Section of Fig. 1114. 



UN 




Fig. 1116.- 
through 



-Vertical 
A B (Fig. 



Section 
1114). 



Fig. 1112.— Enlarged Detail through Jamb, Eoor 
Stile, Architraves, etc. (Fig. 1106). 



Fig. 1113.— Finish of 

Skirting against 

Architrave. 




DOORS AND DOOR FRAMES. 



335 



and stiles. The finished sizes^thus usually 
come : Bottom and middle rails, 6f in. 
by If in. ; stiles, top rails, and muntins, 
3| in. by If in., the panels finishing about 
f in. or -/,-.- in. thick. The bottom and 
middle rails being narrow, it is usual to 
have only one tenon ; if this is 3 in. or 3 J in. 
wide with haunchings on each side, as shown 
at Figs. 1104 and 1109, it will, as a rule, be 
found sufficient. 

Framed Door. 

A 6-ft. 8-in. by 2-ffc. 8-in. door, framed 
up out of deal stuff, namely, 9 in. by If in., 
is shown at Figs. 1106 and 1107 in half 
elevation and horizontal section. 

The Frame. — This, as in the last example, 
is solid ; but it is rebated and beaded. It 
is intended that the frame forms a direct 
portion of the partition without jamb 
linings, etc. The enlarged details at Figs. 
1110 and 1111 will make the construction 
of the joints, beading, etc., of the frame 
quite clear. The architraves are shown 
by the detail Fig. 1112, as fixing on 
to the frame and covering its joint with 
the plastering. Fig. 1113 shows the 
skirting finishing against the architrave. 
The door being framed of deal stuff, the 
finished sizes of the members will be : 
Bottom and middle rails, 8f in. by If in. ; 
muntins, top rail, and stiles, 4Jin. by If in. 
(of course, the thickness might vary up to 
2 in. or even more). The tenons, wedging, 
plough-grooves, etc., are indicated by the 
dotted lines. 

Four = panelled Moulded Door, with 

Jamb Linings, etc., in a 4^ = in. Wall 

or Studded Partition. 

A good ordinary door, with its fitments, 
is shown in elevation, plan, and section at 
Figs. 1114 to 1116. The construction of the 
joints will be clearly understood by refer- 
ence to Fig. 1117, and sections of the mould- 
ings in the panels are given at a (Fig. 1118). 

Jambs, Grounds, etc. — Fig. 1119 illus- 
trates an ordinary form of plain jamb 
linings, which are grooved and tongued to- 
gether as represented. They are made out 
of 1-in. to lj-in. stuff, sufficiently wide to 
project on each side of the post about | in., 
the amount required for lathing and plaster- 



ing, or for plastering only in the case of 
brickwork. The jamb linings are fixed 
plumb and straight by packing pieces, or 




11 



I" -ih-Si 



I 





Fig. 1117. — Conventional View of Mortice and 
Tenon Joints of Door (Fig. 1114). 




Fig. 1118.— Enlarged Detail of C at Fig. 1115. 

wedges, which are first placed ^between the 
back of the lining and the posts as repre- 
sented at b (Fig. 1119), and then nailing 
through, as also shown. The head is fixed 
in a similar manner. The advantage of 



336 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 




Fig. 1119.— Conventional View showing Method 
of Fixing Jamb Linings, Grounds, etc. 



using wedges is that the jambs can be ad- 
justed more accurately for straightness. 
For fixing the architraves, grounds are fixed 




Fig. 1120.— Detail of Groove and Tongue Joint 
at E (Fig. 1119). 




Fig. 1121. — Showing a Corner of Jambs with 
Single Rebate out of the Solid. 





Fig. 1122. — Showing an Angle of Jambs with 
Solid Stops. 

to the posts and head, so that their faces 
are flush with the edges of the jamb, as in- 
dicated at Fig. 1119. These grounds are 
generally splayed at the back edges as illus- 
trated, to form a key for the plastering. In 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY 




HALF TIMBERED PORCH AND ENTRANCE DOORWAY 



DOORS AND DOOR FRAMES. 



337 



the case of commoner work, instead of pre- 
paring and fixing grounds, pieces of board, 
2 in. or 3 in. wide and 1 ft. or so long, are 
fixed at intervals of 12 in. or 15 in., as indi- 
cated at h and d (Fig. 1119). This example 
shows the stops nailed on. Two other kinds 




Fig. 1123.— Taking Width of Door with Two 
Rods. 

of jamb linings are represented at Figs. 1121 
and 1122. The form at Fig. 1121 has a 
single rebate made out of the solid, the jamb 
and head being grooved and tongued to- 
j gether as shown. A rebate on each side is 
shown at Fig. 1122 ; thus a solid stop is 



door should this happen to be a little out 
of truth ; and should the jamb-linings be 
fixed out of truth — especially when the 
jambs wind one way and the door the other 
way — the difference is intensified, and causes 
considerable trouble to the workman. For 
the sake of example, suppose a door 6 ft. 8 in. 
by 2 ft. 8 in. by 2 in. thick, prepared for a 
mortice lock, has to be hung This means 
that one end of the middle rail has four tenons 
instead of two, this provision being necessary 
in order that when the mortice for the lock 
has been cut, the wedging between the tenons 
shall not be cut away ; were they cut away, 
there would be nothing to hold the stile to 
the rail, and very soon the stile would come 
away from the shoulder. If it has not pre- 
viously been arbitrarily decided to which 
jamb the door has to be hung, it should be 
so arranged that the door, when slightly 
open, will hide most of the interior of the 
room. When a doorway is arranged near 
the centre of one side of a room, it is not 




Fig. 1124.— Door in Position for Shooting Edge. 



formed as illustrated. The grooving and 
tongueing of the jambs and head are of a 
more complicated character. 

I Hanging- Ordinary Four = panel Door. 

The method of hanging an ordinary four- 
j panel door will now be described. The 
frames or jambs to which doors are hung 
are either rebated out of the solid or have 
stops nailed on. For inside work, if the 
stops are planted on after the door is hung, 
the carpenter is able to make them fit the 

15 



so very important which side the door is 
hung, although it is more usual for a door 
to open against the fireplace ; but when, 
as is generally the case, the doorway is 
near a corner, the door should be hung 
to the jamb farthest from the corner. 
The side of the door which has double 
tenons is the side for the lock, so the other 
must be the one for the hinges. Mark on 
the muntin of the door to indicate which is 
the inside face, and stand it against the wall. 
Then take two short strips of wood, and, 



;:;* 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



holding them together in the middle, care- 
fully take the width of the opening about a 
foot above the floor, as indicated at Fig. 
1123. Mark this measurement on the 
door at about the same height, allowing 
for taking as much off one edge as the 
other, so as not to make one stile appear 
narrower than the other ; also allow a, good 
yV in. each side for the joint. Follow the 




way, put a wedge, about 1 ft. long and 1 in. 
thick, the thin edge under the low stile, and 
force it in until the door stands square with 
the jambs, and shows an equal joint from 
top to bottom. Observe how each stile fits 
each jamb, and also whether the joints are 
even. If not quite satisfactory, mark the 
parts, take down the door, and plane the 
stiles where necessary. Replace in position 
and keep one stile close to a jamb. Now 
push the blade of a square under the head 
of the door jamb, in the joint of the door, 
and mark across the edge (Fig. 1125) ; then 




Fig. 1125. Scribing Door for Height. 

same procedure at the upper part of the 
door about a foot below the head. Test 
each jamb with a straightedge so as to note 
whether to plane the stiles straight or to allow 
for any inequalities. Next hold the door 
on its edge as shown at Fig. 1124 and 
plane the edges down to the marks, taking 
care to leave them a little out of square in 
favour of the outside of the door. Stand 
the door up in its place, and, if it leans either 



Fig. 1126. Fig. 1127. 

Fig. 1126. — Projection of Knuckle of Butt. 
Fig. 1127. — Joint between Door and Frame. 



square this mark across the stile of the door, 
and do the same on the opposite stile. Take 
the compasses, and, setting them to the 
narrowest part of the top rail left above 
the marks just made (see a, Fig. 1125), prick 
off two marks above those made with the 
square on the stile. This will give the actual 
shape of the door head, irrespective of its 
squareness ; and if, without shifting the 
compasses, the floor line is scribed across 
both stiles and the bottom rail as shown at 
Fig. 1125, the exact height of the door, with- 
out allowing anything for joint, will be ob- , 
tained. Lay the door on two stools, mark f 
across from the marks at the top made by the 



DOORS AND DOOR FRAMES. 



339 



compasses, and also at the bottom, after al- 
lowing f in. for the joints at top and bottom. 
Saw off the surplus stuff to these marks, take 
off the rough arrises with the jack plane, and 
the door is fitted. Stand the door on one 
side for a few minutes, and fit the door stops. 
Cut the head to length first, and tap it in ; 
then square off the side stops a little shorter 
than the height of the opening, mark them 
to exact length, and spring them into their 
places. Try the door in position, and ease it 
if necessary ; if not, then stand it on one 



and the door is left slightly open, people 
can peep in and see all over the room. 
No doubt there is truth in this ; but, on 
the other hand, if this course is followed, 
the joint of the door comes so close 
that it will not open much more than 
square before it binds on the mouldings. The 
first man coming in with the furniture pushes 
the door right open, as he thinks ; but as 




Fig. 1128. 



-Setting Out on Edge for Flange of 
Butt. 



Fig. 1129.— Flange of Butt Screwed to Stile. 

this cannot be done, the result is that the 
door is partly torn from its hinges. It is 
therefore preferable to keep the top hinge 
out nearly J in., and the bottom one^J in. 




Fig. 



1131.— Showing Stile of Door Planed to 
Allow for Clearance in Opening. 



side and let in the hinges, the top one about 
6 in. or 7 in. down, and the bottom one just 
above the bottom rail. There is no par- 
ticular rule to go by as to height, and half 
an inch more or less makes no difference, 
as long as the butts are never let into the 
stiles at the ends of the tenons of the rails. 

Putting on the Hinges. — Some joiners in- 
sist that the hinges should be let in so that 
their centres come to the centre of the joint 
of the door (Figs. 1126 and 1127) ; the 
reason given is that if this is not done, 




Fig. 1130. — Marking along Knuckle of Butt for 
Letting into Jamb. 

more. Set out the hinges on the stile as 
shown at Fig. 1128, the lines a and b being 
made with a marking gauge. Saw and 
pare out and then screw the flange of the butt 
in position as shown at Fig. 1129 ; its sur- 
face should be just flush with the edge of 
the door. Next offer the door in position, 



340 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



pushing the wedge underneath until a joint 
about the thickness of a penny is obtained 
at each side and at the top. Mark the 
position of the hinges both at top and 
bottom with a chisel ; then with the chisel 
mark the thickness of the knuckle on 
the edge of the jamb, as shown at Fig. 
1130. This will give the depth to which 
to let the hinge in. The other edge of the 
hinge should not be let in more than its own 



Repairing and Replacing Door Panels. 

Cause of Panels Splitting.— One of the most 
general causes of door panels splitting up 
the middle is the improper fixing of the 
mouldings ; the nails beng inserted so that 
they pass through a portion of the panel into 
the framing as indicated at a (Fig. 1132), 
whereas the moulding should be secured to 
the framing only, as indicated at b. It will 




Fig. 1132.— Part Horizontal Section through Split Door Panel, etc. 




Fig. 1133. — Part Elevation of Split Door Panel, etc. 



thickness, and care should be taken to drive 
the screws in square with the hinge. 

Completing the Hanging. — Get the posi- 
tion of the stops, close the door, and knock 
it gently until it is flush with the jamb at 
the spot where the lock will come ; then nail 
on the stops so that they fit close on the lock 
stile, and allow about /,,-in. joint on the head 
and hanging stile to allow for paint. Drive 
in the nails about 1 ft. apart, and on alter- 
nate edges, so that the stops shall not curl 
away from the jamb. The planing under of 
door stiles — that is, planing them out of 
square so that they do not bind on the inner 
edge when closed — is shown in the section 
(Fig. 1131). 



be seen that in the former case the panel has 
no chance of shrinking a little in the plough 
groove ; hence the splitting. (Figs. 1132 
and 1133 are part section and part elevation 
respectively of a split panel in a door.) 
Another cause of splitting is the fitting of 
the panels too tightly into the plough 
grooves. 

Repairing Split Panel. — To repair a split 
panel in which the split is not of long stand- 
ing, and in which, when the parts are forced 
together, a fair joint will result, first care- 
fully take out the mouldings from each side, 
then make six or eight blocks and wedges 
similar to those shown in Fig. 1134 ; screw 
the blocks to the panel as indicated, taking 



DOORS AND DOOR FRAMES. 



341 



care to keep the screw -holes in the panel so 
that they will be covered by the mouldings ; 
then by carefully levering with a chisel, and 
lightly striking the wedges, the parts of the 
panel can be forced together. If the result 



Inserting Strip in Split Panel. — Another 
method, which, in ceitain circumstances, 
would be the only satisfactory one, of repair- 
ing a split panel is as follows : — Take out the 
moulding at the top and bottom of the panel 
(this being necessary on one side only), and 
set out as shown in Figs. 1132 and 1133 in 
which b and b' indicate the crack. On one 
side make the distance, indicated by the solid 




Fig. 1135. 



-Conventional Sectional View showing 
Piece Inserted in Panel. 



of the trial is found to be satisfactory, the 
wedges can be released, the crack opened, 
and some good glue run in. Then the wedges 
are tightened, and the parts forced as close 
as possible, any superfluous glue being care- 
fully washed off. After the glue is dry, any 
projecting parts may be removed by means 
of a sharp scraper and glasspaper ; then the 
mouldings can be replaced. 



Fig. 1134.— Method of Close Wedging the Split 
of Panel. 



lines marked a a, less than the distance b b, 
indicated on the other side by dotted lines. 
These lines having been drawn on each side, 
the superfluous wood should be pared off 
exactly to the lines, forming a dovetailed 
opening. Next prepare a strip of wood so 
that it fits in as indicated in Fig. 1135. It 
will be noticed that it is necessary to notch 
each end out just between the mouldings 
at the top and bottom on that side where the 
mouldings have not been taken out. The 
arrangement being satisfactory, secure the 
strip with glue, taking care to keep the two 
parts of each surface of the panel in the same 
plane. The whole should then stand for a 
time, to allow of the glue setting thoroughly. 
After this the strip may be cleaned oS on 
each side flush with the panel, a small iron 
plane being extremely useful for this pur- 



342 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY 



pose ; and after being finished off with fine 
glasspaper, the pieces of moulding may be 
re-inserted. 

Replacing Panel in Door. — Sometimes a 
panel may be so much damaged that it 
must be replaced, and in some cases, especi- 
ally with good doors, it is objectionable to 
take off the stiles because of the liability to 
spoil the latter and the rails, particularly 
where the joints have been well glued and 
wedged together. The method about to 
be described will obviate these objections 
and produce a good sound job : — First take 
out the mouldings on each side of the panel, 
and cut out the panel. This may be done 
by making a hole with a brace and bit and 
sawing down a short distance with a pad 
saw, the remainder being cut with a panel 
saw. The main portion having been taken 
out, the pieces can be removed from the 



plane. Of course, little of this will be neces- 
sary if the parts have been carefully fitted. 
The mouldings may then be re-inserted, and 
the job thus completed as far as the joiner is 
concerned. 

Four = panelled Moulded Door, with 
Plain Framed Jamb Linings in 
an i8=in. Wall. 

The Door. — A door and jamb linings 
which will usually be found in a larger build- 
ing than in the preceding case are shown at 
Figs. 1137 to 1142. This door is repre- 
sented as being 7 ft. by 3 ft. and 2 in. to 
1\ in. thick, panelled and moulded as 
shown. The framing of doors of this kind, 
when of deal or pine, is generally made from 
stuff 11 in. wide ; therefore the finished sizes 
are usually about as follows : Bottom rail 
and middle rail 10J in. wide, and stile, top 



Fig. 1136. — Section of Panel with Rebated Fillets. 



plough grooves with a chisel. Now make a 
new panel in the following way. Prepare 
two strips about J in. wide, and the same 
thickness as the panel. Next prepare the 
panel, and rebate this and the strips together 
as shown at Fig. 1136, so that when they are 
put together their combined width will be 
exactly the same as the distance between the 
plough grooves of the stile and muntin. 
Next fit the rebated fillets into the plough 
grooves, and cut off the panel to length. 
It is not possible to cut it off long enough 
to go the full distance into the top and 
bottom plough grooves ; but if it is cut off 
the length between the rails plus the depth 
of one plough groove it will, when put in 
position, be of sufficient length to extend 
halfway into each plough groove. When 
found to fit satisfactorily, the panel may 
be slipped out, and, its rebated edges and 
also those of the fillets being glued, it may 
be pushed back into its proper position, 
care being taken that at the top and bottom 
it extends into the plough grooves. Addi- 
tional security may be obtained by insert- 
ing a few fine screws diagonally as indicated 
in Fig. 1136. AVhen the glue is dry, the 
joints may be cleaned off with a small rebate 



rail, and muntins 5J in. wide. The upper 
part of the door is divided into two panels 
by the horizontal frieze rail. The construc- 
tion of the different joints would be very 
similar to that shown and explained in the 
example on p. 329, except for the tenons on 
the middle rail where the mortice lock is 
provided for. In the present example 
double twin tenons would be made and 
fitted into corresponding mortices, cut in the 
stiles as represented at Fig. 1141. These 
double tenons are provided with the object 
that when the mortice is cut through the 
stile for the mortice lock it does not inter- 
fere with or weaken the wood in the same ; 
vertical planes as the tenons. 

Framed Jamb Linings, Grounds, etc. — 
These are fitted in an 18-in. wall, which 
means that, with the plastering, the jamb 
linings will have to be 20 in. wide. It is 
usual to frame the jamb linings out of stuff 
2| in. to 3| in. wide and about \\ in. to 
If in. thick. The rails and stiles of 
these linings are mortised and tenoned 
together, wedged up, and cleaned off in 
the usual manner, as clearly shown at i 
Fig. 1142. The jambs and head stiles are 
also grooved and tongued together, as 



DOORS AND DOOR FRAMES. 



343 




Fig. 1139. 

Fig. 1137.— Half Inside and 
Half Outside Elevation 
of Four-panelled Door. 

Fig. 1138.— Half Plan look- 
ing down, and Half Plan 
looking up. 

Fig. 1139. — Transverse 
Section. 



344 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



shown. The jambs are placed plumb and driven in. Any necessary faring, either in 
out of winding, and fastened to wooden the form of wedges or strips, would be placed 




Fig. 1142. -Conventional View of Framed Jamb 
Linings, Grounds, etc. 

bricks or to breeze bricks built in the sides of 
the opening ; or if these are not provided, 
some of the mortar joints between the brick- 



Fig. 1141.— Conventional View of Double Twin 
Tenons for Lock Rail. 

between the wood bricks and the back of 



work would be cut out and wooden plugs the linings, so that the latter might be fixed 



DOORS AND DOOR FRAMES. 



345 




Fig. 1143. 



Fig. 1145. 




Fig. 1143.— Elevation of Six- 
panelled Door' 

Fig. 1144.— Half Plan looking up, 
and Half Plan looking down. 

Fig. 1145. — Transverse Section 

through Door Head and 

Elevation of Jamb. 



15* 



Fig. 1144. 



346 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



straight, plumb, and out of winding. Where 
wood lintels are used as shown, there is very 
little difficulty in fixing the head. Grounds 
to form a base for the architraves are now 
fixed round each side of the openini, flush 
with the edges of the jamb linings as shown 
at'L (Fig. 1142). A board of the necessary 
width, which in this case is 15 J in., by Jin. 
to f in. in thickness, would be fixed to the 
framing round the jamb linings, as indicated 
by the portion shown at s (Fig. 1142), thus 
forming on each side a rebate equal to the 
thickness of the door. 




Fig. 1146.— Enlarged Detail through Head of 
Linings, Architraves, etc. 

Six = panelled Door with Framed and 
Panelled Linings in an i8=in. Wall. 

A door and jamb linings of rather a more 
important character are illustrated by 
Figs. 1143 to 1146. The general construc- 
tion of the door would be similar to that in 
the previous case. The jamb linings in 
this example are formed of panelled and 
moulded framing, so as to correspond with 
the door. It will be noticed that the stiles 
are rebated out of the solid, forming a recess 
and stop for the door on one side and 
simply a rebate on the other. The fixing 
of the linings and grounds would be very 
similar to that in the last example, except 
that in the last example the fixing of the 
linings is mostly hidden by the stop. 



Outer Door with Bead Butt Panels 
and Frame with Fanlight. 

A four-panelled outer door, the inside 
being moulded, and the outside having bead 
butt panels, is illustrated in elevation, plan, 
and section at Figs. 1147 to 1149. The 
frame is fixed in an 18-in. brick wail with 
4J-in. reveals ; the finish to the opening on 
the inside is by splayed linings, as shown. 
The sizes are figured on the drawings. 

Door Frame. — The chief points to notice 
in this are the forms of the joints between 
the head and jambs, as represented at Fig. 
1150, and that between the jambs and 
transom shown at Fig. 1151. Another 
view of the transom is given at Fig. 1152 
so as to show the construction more clearly. 
It will be seen that the frame is rebated out 
of the solid and beaded on the inside ; it 
is also ploughed to receive the tongues of the 
jambs, the splayed linings, and the soffit of 
same ; the outside edge of the frame has 
an ovolo worked on. The mitering and 
intersection of the beads between the head 
post and transom are shown at Figs. 1150 
to 1152. This frame would be built in be- 
tween the brickwork as described for previ- 
ous examples, or it would be fixed to wood 
bricks or plugs. The rebate of the head of 
the frame is splayed as shown, to facilitate 
the opening and closing of the fanlight. 

Splayed Linings. — These would be tongued 
and grooved together in a somewhat similar 
manner as the jamb linings (Fig. 1042, p. 
344). They should also have tongues 
formed on their inner edges so as to fit into 
the corresponding grooves in the frame as- 
indicated at Figs. 1153 and 1154. These 
linings would be sufficiently wide to project 
about | in. beyond the brickwork, which is 
the thickness of the plaster. The linings, 
would be fixed to wood bricks or plugs pro- 
vided in the brickwork, with necessary 
packing pieces or wedges, so that they are 
straight and out of winding. The grounds 
vary from 3 in. to 5 in. wide, according to 
the breadth of the architrave which is to be 
fixed to them. These should next be fixed, 
so that their faces are flush with the face of 
the splayed finings round the edge which has. 
to be next to the plastering, this being 
splayed so as to form a key. 



DOORS AND DOOR FRAMES. 



347 







Fig. 1149. 

Fig. 1147.— Half Inside 
and Half Outside Ele- 
vation. Fig. 1148. — 
Horizontal Section. 
Fig. 1149. — Vertical 
Section. 



348 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 




Fig. 1150.— Joint between Post and Head. 




Fig. 1151. 



Figs. 1151 and 1152.— Joint between Post and 
Transom. 





Fig. 1154. — Enlarged Detail through Stile, Post, 
Linings, etc. 




Fig. 1155. — Conventional View showing Portion Fig. 1153. — Enlarged Detail through Head and 
of Head and Butt Panels and Framing. Transom of Frame. 



DOORS AND DOOR FRAMES. 



349 



The Door. — In making this, the points to 
j notice beyond those already treated on are 
: that the face of the panels on the outside 
| usually finish flush with the framing. The 



joiners prefer making the shoulders of the 
panels and muntins all exactly one length, 
but perhaps a better plan is to have each 
muntin a shade (say T X F in.) long ; then at 




Fig. 1158. — Half Inside Elevation and Half Outside Elevation with Shutter Removed. 



panels are rebated on the outside to fit into 
the ploughed groove of the framing . A j-in., 
f-in., or f-in. bead is worked on the vertical 
edges of the panels, but the ends of the 
panels fit square to the edges of the rails, as 
illustrated at Figs. 1147 and 1155. Some 



the time of wedging up to cramp from the 
top and bottom rails, so as to bring all up 
close. The fanlight of this door, being sash- 
work, will be dealt with in that section. In 
Figs. 1147 to 1149 a well for a mat is partly 
shown. 



350 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 




$ 



Fig. 1159. 

Fig 1156.— Outside Elevation 
of Door and Shutter. 

Fig. 1157.— Half Horizontal 

Section through A A 

(Fig. 1156). 

Fig. 1159. — Vertical Section 
through C C (Fig. 1156). 



Fig. 1157. 



DOORS AND DOOR FRAMES. 



351 




Fig. 1160.— Enlarged Details of D 
(Fig. 1157) and of E (Fig. 1157). 



1 



the upper part of the framing of the door. 
It projects about half its thickness on the 
inside, so as to allow a recess sufficient to 
receive the shutter ; this will be clearly 
understood by reference to a (Fig. 1159), 
and also to Figs. 1161, 1163, and 1164. 



Fig. 1162. — Enlarged Conventional Details of 
Bottom Rail, Muntin, and Panel of Shutter. 



Fi*. 1161. — Enlarged Detail through Lower 

Panel, Middle Rail, and Bottom Rails of 

Sash and Shutter. 

Outer Door and Frame, Lower Panels 
Bead and Flush. Upper Part of 
Door prepared for Sash and Lifting 
Shutter. 

This example is illustrated by Figs. 1156 
to 1180. Reference to Fig. 1156, which is 
an outside elevation, will show that the 
bottom panels have a continuous bead round 
them, and this kind of panel is known as 
bead flush. The upper part has a movable 
shutter, which also has bead flush panels ; 
a conventional view of one of these is shown 
at Fig. 1162. A half inside elevation with 
the shutter removed is given at Fig. 1158, 
which brings into view the sash, fitted into 




Fig. 1163. — Enlarged Conventional Details of 

Corner of Sash, showing it fitted to Framing 

of Door. 



:;:>2 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



Frame, Linings, Grounds, etc. — The con- 
struction of the frame being similar to pre- 
vious examples, it will not be necessary to 
enter into a lengthy description of it. It 
is ploughed to receive the tongues of the 
square linings, as shown in plan and section 




Fig. 1164. — Conventional Detail showing Thumb 
Screw, etc., for Fastening Bottom of Shutter. 

(Figs. 1157 and 1159), and in an enlarged 
detail (Fig. 1160). In this case the grounds 
have ovolo-moulded edges, and are slightly 
rebated so as to fix to the outer edges of the 
linings, as shown at a (Fig. 1160). These 
grounds also serve as part of the architrave, 
and thus allow a narrower architrave mould- 
ing being used round the frame, which at 




Fig. 1165. 



Stub and Plate for Securing Top of 
Shutter. 



the same time produces an effect equal to a 
broader architrave moulding. 

Door. — The construction of this door is 
similar in some respects to those already 
described, and therefore these points need 
not be recapitulated. However, as in the 



setting out and making new features are 
introduced, it will be necessary to explain 
them. The stuff for cutting out the pair 
of stiles can usually be lined out on a 
board as represented at Fig. 1167. Here 
the upper part of one stile is shown adjacent 
to the lower part of the other stile. This 
method leaves a spare strip between the 
stiles, which may be taken out in two 
pieces. Perhaps a better method is to cut 
off from one edge of the board a long strip, 
as shown at a (Fig. 1167). The more general 
method in trying up the stiles is to first true 
up the face sides ; then the back edges are 
shot straight and also square to these sides, 
and then the lower parts of the stiles are 
gauged and planed to a breadth, and, of 
course, made square to the face side as low 
as convenient, which is usually a few inches 
off the exact distance. The sash parts of 




Fig. 1166.— Completed End of Middle Rail. 

the stiles are sometimes gauged and worked, 
but perhaps the better plan is to leave this 
operation until after the stiles have been set 
out and mortised. When all the stuff for 
the framework of the door has been trued 
up, the setting out would be proceeded with. 
The rod for the length is represented at a 
(Fig. 1168). From this the sash and shutter 
have been purposely omitted for the sake of 
clearness. One of the stiles should be 
placed on the rod, and the positions for the 
rails marked off ; then the sizes of the tenons 
and allowance for haunchings should also 
be pricked off. The face sides of this pair 
of stiles should next be placed together with 
the face edges outwards ; then squared down 
for the mortices, etc., as represented at B 
(Fig. 1168). The positions for the mortices 
can then be transferred to the back edges 
of the stiles, as indicated by the dotted lines. 



„ 



DOORS AND DOOR FRAMES. 



353 




354 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



The relation between the rod and the 
setting out of the stiles is clearly shown by 
the projectors. The setting out for the 
mortices and wedging can be completed on 



part of the setting out of the three rails 
from this is clearly shown projected above at 
d. The setting out for the shoulders, 
haunchings, and mortices for muntins for 



Fig. 1173. 



Fig. 1171 D. 




Fig. 1171 C. 



Fig. 1171 C— Width Rod. Fig. 1171 D.— Rails Set Out on^Edges ; the Projectors from the Rod 
show the Connection of the Setting Out with it. Fig. 1173.— Middle Rail Set Out. 






the back edges, as represented at Fig. 11G9. 
The muntins can also be placed on the stiles 
and' marked for the shoulders, as repre- 
sented ; then these can be taken off, and 
squared round for the shoulders as shown 
at Fig. 1170. The rod for the width of the 
door is shown at c (Fig. 1171), and the first 



the bottom rail is shown at Fig. 1172. The 
complete setting out for the shoulders, etc., 
of the middle rail is shown at Fig. 1173. Bv 
referring to Fig. 1171 c at e and F, it will 
be seen that the front and back shoulders 
of the middle rail are not in one plane, owing 
to the small bead worked round the out- 



DOORS AND DOOR FRAMES 



355 



side of the framing to break joint with the 
shutter. The beads start from the same 
square line at the bottom edge as a b (Fig. 
1173), but the one finishes the breadth of the 
bead in front of the other, as indicated at 
d and e, the exact amount being the bead 
and quirk, the stile diminishing the dis- 
tance a h on the outside and AG on the 
inside. Squaring the line across from G, 
as represented by the dotted line, and then 




Fig. 1175. 



Setting Out of Shoulders on Face 
Side of Stiles. 




Fig. 1176. 



-Setting Out of Shoulders on Back 
Side of Stiles. 



down the edge, the point d is found, and 
joining d to a, the inside shoulder is shown. 
Now squaring across from h as shown by 
the second dotted line, the point k is ob- 
tained ; from the arris measuring the thick- 
ness of the bead, the point f is obtained ; 
joining f to b gives the outside shoulder. The 



m (Fig. 1175), and then marking the thick- 
ness of the bead from the gauge line n, draw 
the short line parallel to this as shown at 




Fig. 1177. — Application of Adjustable Square 
for Setting Out Shoulders on Stiles. 

o. Thus point f is obtained, and joining 
F to b gives the shoulder line. On the in- 
side of the stile (Fig. 1176) square across 
from the line L, and where this intersects 




Fig. 1178. — Application of Adjustable Square for Setting Out Shoulders on Middle Rail. 



setting out for the top rail is shown at Fig. 
1174, the difference between the front and 
back shoulders being equal to the thickness 
of the bead. The shoulder lines can now be 
set out on the stiles ; Fig. 1175 represents 
the outside portion of the stile, whereas 
Fig. 1176 represents the inside. Remem- 
bering what has been stated about setting 
out the middle rail, first squaring on the side 



with the gauge line p, it gives the point D, 
and joining d to a gives the shoulder line. 

An adjustable square will be found very 
useful in setting out the shoulders both on 
the stiles and rails. One is illustrated at 
Figs. 1177 and 1178. Usually the stock is 
the hngth shown from a to b, but by having 
it longer, as shown, the inner edge of the 
lower part of the stile can be worked from 



356 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



instead of the back edge, and this is an ad- 
vantage. The longer stock is also an ad- 
vantage, as there is more of it to adjust to 
the rail (see Fig. 1178). When the square 
is true and properly adjusted, then obvi- 
ously, if the stuff is planed up true, the 
shoulders can be accurately marked out by 
the aid of this square. 

The work can now be gauged, the mor- 
tices made, and the tenons cut. Perhaps the 
best method of mortising is to do all the 
mortices of the stiles before the splay 
shoulders are cut ; especially is this more 



between what will form the quirks for the 
top and bottom beads, as indicated by solid 
lines in Fig. 1179, in which the dotted 
lines represent the full length of the 
panel after the insertion of the top and bot- 
tom bead. Next rebate and bead the 
edges, and then, with a short thin chisel and 
a mallet, cut out the wider rebates at each 
end, as shown at Fig. 1180. Take a piece 
of board equal to about the thickness of 
the panel less the tongue which goes into 
the plough groove, and on this stick suffi- 
cient beading for the ends of the panels, 
saw this down, leaving a little more 
than the quirk on, plane down to 
the quirk, cut of? to lengths, mitre 
the ends and also the ends of the 




1179.— Panel Gauged and Set Out 
ready for Rebating. 



convenient when the mortising is 
to be done by a mortising machine. When 
having to mortise entirely by hand, many 
joiners prefer, before mortising, to trim the 
splayed shoulders near to within the hues, 
considering it saving in labour. 

The stiles and rails should be ploughed, 
the beads worked on, and the splayed 
shoulders of the stiles accurately formed to 
the lines, a bullnose plane sometimes being 
found useful for this kind of shoulder. The 
shoulders of the rails can now be cut and 
the framing fitted together in the usual 
manner. A conventional view of a com- 
pleted end of the middle rail is shown at 
Fig. 1166. If it is desired to make pro- 
vision for a mortice lock, double twin tenons, 
as shown at Fig. 1141, p. 344, would take 
the place of those shown at Fig. 1166. 

Bead and Flush Panels. — In making the 
bead and flush panels, the special points are : 
being faced up and thicknessed, they should 
next be gauged for width and set out for 
length J in. less each way than the distance 
between the plough grooves, then sawn and 
shot to these lines. They should next be 
lUed for rebating, and set out for length. 
The length here referred to is the distance 



Fig. 1180.— Panel Rebated, Side Beads Stuck 
ready for Mitering for Ends of Beads. 

bead stuck on the side of the panels ; 
then secure these beads in their position 
by a little glue and a few brads. In Fig. 
1162 at a the bead is shown fixed in posi- 
tion. At b part of the bead is in position, 
and at c the other part is shown projected 
up so as to give a view of the mitering at 
d. When the door is fitted together, the 
combined breadth of the panels and muntin 
should be from T \ in. to J in. less the length 
of the middle and bottom rails measured be- 
tween the shoulders so as to allow for closely 
cramping up the shoulders of the stiles and 
rails. The making of the sash will be de- 
scribed in the section on sash-making. 

Making the Shutter. — This should present 
no difficulty, its construction being similar to 
that of the lower part of the door, as shown 
in the illustrations. After being wedged 
and cleaned off, it should be fitted in the 
recess in the framing, so as to leave a good 
,',., in. all round the joint to allow for paint 
and a slight clearance. A thumb-screw 
and plates suitable for securing the bottom 



DOORS AND DOOR FRAMES. 



357 




Fig. ^1181.— Half Inside and Half Outside 
Elevation. 



Fig, 1183. — Vertical Section through 
Centre of Fig. 1181. 




Fig. 1182. — Half Horizontal Section through A A, and Half Horizontal Section through B B. 



of the shutter from the inside of the sash is External Two = panelled Door, Lower 



illustrated at Fig. 1164 ; the nut plate being 
let in and screwed to the inside of the 
shutter, and a second plate fixed to the sash 
receives the shoulder of the thumb-screw. A 
stub and plate for securing the top of the 
shutter is shown at Fig. 1165. 



Panel Raised and Bolection Moulded ; 
Upper Part of Framing with Mar= 
ginal Lights prepared for Glass. 

The door, frame, linings, etc., illustrated 
by Figs. 1181 to 1201, are of a kind that 



358 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



is commonly used in houses of the subur- 
ban villa class. The door has a lower 
panel plain-faced on the inside, with mould- 



2 3 /4 x2!4 




finished off with bolection moulding. The 
stiles are known as diminished or gunstock 
stiles, in which the upper part, being nar- 
rower, forms a larger opening for glazing. 
Four bars are provided, forming what is 
known as marginal lights. The frame is 




Fig. 1186.— Enlarged Details of Head of Frame, 
Door, Soffit, etc. 




Fig. 1184. Fig. 1185. 

Fig. 1184. Enlarged Details of Outside 

Elevation (Fig. 1181). 

Fig. 1185. Enlarged Details of Vertical Section. 

ing round the framing. The outside of the 
panel has a sunk margin with a moulding 
worked on the edge of the raising, and 



Fig. 1187.— Setting Out Top of Post. 



beaded on the inside and moulded on the 
outside. The frame is inserted in a 20-in. 
stone wall. Splayed linings, which also, 
have a splayed soffit, are tongued into the 
frame as shown. In the making and fixing 
of this door, frame, linings, etc., the points 
which are common to other examples, and 
which have been already treated, will -not 
be recapitulated ; only the principal' new 



DOORS AND DOOR FRAMES. 



359 



features will be explained and illus- 
trated. 

Frame. — A portion of the rod with the 
head set out is shown at Fig. 1187 ; pro- 
jected above this, the top end of the post 



is less compb'cated, whilst the amount of 
labour involved is no more by having double 
mortices and tenons each of 1 in., as shown, 
and the shoulders can be kept up better 
than with one large tenon. Next set out 




Fig. 1188. 



Setting Out for Mortices in Head of 
Frame. 



Fig. 11S0.— Showirg Grooved and Tougued Joint 
between Jamb and Soffit of Linings. 




c 


/ 






1 




X // 

1 


b' \ 


c 


A 


IA 


/-^^Y 









Fig. 1192. 



Fig. 1189. 



-Completed Joint between Head and 
Post of Frame. 



is shown set out. The shoulder at b has 
been set out from the square of the moulding 
at a, and the inner shoulder is set out from 
the quirk of the bead c, indicated by the 
dotted line d. When moulded and beaded 
as here illustrated, the setting out of a frame 



Fig. 1191. 

G — % 

Figs. 1191 and 1192.— Setting Out of Bevels for 
Intersection at Head of Linings. 

the head. Part of the rod for this is shown 
at Fig. 1188, and the setting out of the head 
is projected over it. The mortice adjacent 
to the rebate is narrow, and the other mortice 
is equal to the whole thickness of the stuff. 
The mortices and tenons can now be marked.. 



360 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



gauging from the face edge only for both 
of them. Having cut the mortices and the 
tenons, the ploughing for the tongues of 
the linings and rebating should be done, 
after which the bead may be stuck and then 



now be cut, and the mitering of the mould- 
ing and bead done to the post as shown at 
a (Fig. 1189), and that for the head as 
represented at b (Fig. 1189). In these large 
mouldings sometimes that on the jamb is 




Fig. 1193. — Bevel Set Out for preparing Edges 
of Linings. 




Fig. 1195.— Rebating to form Tongue on Edge of 
Lining. 

the ogee moulding should be worked as will 
be explained in a later section. Before 
sticking a large moulding, it is as well to run 
gauge lines, one for working the distance 
on, and the other for working the distance 
down to. The shoulders of the post can 




Fig. 1194. — Lining Marked Out and p Gauged for 
Bevelling of Edges. 




Fig. 1196.— Joint between Stile and Middle Rail 
prepared for Mortice Lock. 

scribed over that on the head instead of miter- 
ing, and this method will be illustrated in a 
future example. The frame, after fitting, 
would be wedged up, and a stretcher nailed 
across the bottom in the usual way. 

Splayed Linings. — In these the only new 



DOORS AND DOOR FRAMES. 



361 



feature is that as the soffit is splayed as well 
as the jambs, this involves a little more 
geometrical construction, which is illustrated 
in Figs. 1191 and 1192. Let d e represent 
the line plan of the inner edge of linings, 
c b the outer edge, and a b the face of the 




Fig. 1197.— Portions of Stile and Middle Rail, 
showing Mouldings Scribed Together. 

linings, and it will also represent the plan 
of the intersection between the jamb and 
the soffit. Projecting up, obtain the por- 
tion of the elevation shown by 1 b' c', 2 a' d', 
and then a' b' is the elevation of the inter- 
section between the two linings. Now with 
a as centre and B as radius draw the arc 
b e ; project up from e, drawing the line 3 e'. 
Projecting horizontally from b' we deter- 
mine the point e' ; join this to a', and thus 
the bevel at x is that required for the jamb. 
If the face of the soffit marks the same 
angle with the plan of the door frame, the 
same bevel will do for both. Where this is 
not the case, project vertically from b', 
then with a' as centre and e' as radius draw 
an arc which intersects with the line pro- 
jected from b', giving point f ; draw f c" 
parallel to b c'. Then join f to a", giving 
the bevel y for application to the soffit. 
Fig. 1190 shows one angle of the linings 
grooved and tongued. A few hints on pre- 
paring splayed linings will here be given. 
The stuff is faced up, and the edge to be 
tongued is shot straight. The bevel (Fi 
1193) is set to the splay that the lining 
makes with the frame, and is applied so that 
the line a b (Fig. 1194), equal to the depth 
of the tongue, is drawn with the angle A of 
the bevel, this latter being applied to the 
edge of the lining. Then with the angle b 
(Fig. 1193), the line b c (Fig. 1194) is drawn. 
From a the line e f is gauged. From the 
rod obtain the breadth e to G, and draw 

16 



the gauge line through the latter ; with the 
angle a of the bevel draw the angle shown 
at d. Plane off these edges, using the bevel 
in the same way as the try square. Next 
place the wood edgewise up, holding it in 
some convenient manner, and with the fil- 
lister rebate the back, thus forming the 
tongue as illustrated at Fig. 1195. Refer- 
ence to Fig. 1183 shows that the head is 
cradled out to admit the soffit lining. 

Setting Out the Door. — In setting out 
the stiles, the mortices must be marked 
off from the rod for the cross bars. The 
vertical bars may be placed on the stiles 
and set out both for shoulders and where 
they intersect each other. The rails can 
next be set out, and also the cross bars with 
them. The setting out of the splayed 
shoulders, both in the middle rail and in 
the stiles, will be rather simpler than in 
the previous example, because the sticking 
down of the ovolo and the depth of the 
rebate being equal, the shoulders on each 
side will be in one plane. The setting out 
of one end of a vertical bar and one end of 
a cross bar, and also for their intersection, 
is clearly shown at Fig. 1199. The dotted 
lines indicate where the square of each 
member intersects with that adjacent to 
it, and the space between these and the 
solid lines shows the amount that must 
be allowed for moulding or rebating. 




&• Fig. 1198.— Joint .between Top Rail and Stile of 
Door 

Tenons of Bars. — The tenons of the bars 
should next be sawn down to the shoulder 
lines as shown at Fig. 1199. The shoulders 
should be cut in with a fine saw about J in. 
The sawing of the shoulders must not be 
completed until after the moulding and re- 
bating are finished. 



362 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



Rebating and Moulding. — For a post 
(shown at a, Fig. 1196), as the sash fillister 
cannot be used up to the shoulders of the 
stiles, sufficient of the rebate should first be 



rebated and stuck with the ovolo planes. 
A sticking board will, of course, be necessary 
for this purpose. Particulars of this will be 
found in the section on sash-making. 





Fig. 1199.— Bars Set Out, Tenons Cut, and 
Shoulders Entered. 

made by gauging, and paring out with a 
chisel a portion as shown at A (Fig. 1196) ; 
a bull-nose plane is useful for this purpose. 
The same remark applies to the moulding. 
A portion b (Fig. 1196) must be worked by 



Scribing, Haunching, etc. — Provision 
for a mortice lock is shown by the double 
twin tenons and mortices at Figs. 1196 and 
1197. At c c (Fig. 1196), the mouldings of 
the rail and stiles are shown mitered. An 
alternative method by scribing is shown at 
dd (Figs. 1197 and 1198). The special 
kind of joint between the top rail and stile 
is shown at Fig. 1198, where the square 
left from the moulding on the stile is left on 
to form a haunch, and a piece is mortised out 
above the tenon to fit over this, as shown 
at f (Fig. 1198). Where the bars intersect 
with the stiles, they should be scribed as 
shown at a (Fig. 1200), so as to fit over the 
solid mould of the stile. The intersection 
between a horizontal and a vertical bar is 




'iLJ 1 ^ 




Fig. 1200. Bars Scribed for Fitting Together and to Stile. 



paring, or a pair of routers of the same 
pattern as the ovolo planes may be used 
with advantage. The bars should next be 



shown at b. The square on each side of the 
vertical bar is cut down to the level of the 
rebate, and the moulding is also cut down to 



DOORS AND DOOR FRAMES. 



363 



the same level, thus forming a square surface 
from the square of the rebate to that of the 
moulding. Then, by cutting out a rect- 
angular piece from the horizontal bar, as 
indicated at b, and then cutting a rect- 
angular piece from the vertical bar as 
shown at c, the two can be pushed together. 
For scribing the moulding, ovolo tem- 
plates are useful if the irons of the planes 
are carefully sharpened to the same shape. 
A good alternative method is to use a mitre 




Fig. 1201. — Conventional Sectional View, showing 
Panel, Bolection Moulding, and Inside Moulding. 

template, and first cut a mitre on the mould - 
; ing, which will produce an arris ; and if this 
'is accurately worked to with the scribing 
gauge, the fitting should prove satisfactory. 
The Panel. — The panel is first made 
T V in. less all round than the distance be- 
tween the plough grooves ; then it is gauged 
jfor the breadth and depth of the sinkings. 
I The two sinkings across the grain should 
first be made either with a rebate plane or a 
[panel plane, after first running a couple of 
saw kerfs across the grain. The sinking with 
the grain can now be made, the aim being to 
make all four sinkings in one plane. The 
moulding should first be stuck on across the 



grain, and afterwards the two sides with the 
grain may be done. The conventional view 
(Fig. 1201) will make Glear the construction 
of the panel and also of the bolection mould- 
ing mitered round the outside. The glass 
is fixed in with beads as shown. 

Panelled Linings for Doorways. 

Panelled linings for doorways, examples of 
which are illustrated by Figs. 1202 and 1203, 
are so called because they are framed — that 
is to say, mortised and tenoned, the panels 
being inserted in grooves like the panels of a 
door ; in fact, they are panelled to match 
the door that is intended to be hung to 
them. They are also ornamented with the 
same kind of moulding as the door — some- 
times with moulding put in on the panel, but 
not quite flush with the surface of the fram- 
ing, sometimes with bolection moulding, 
which fits partly on the panel and partly on 
the framing, the angle of the framing fitting 
into the rebate. More care is required in 
putting the latter moulding in than in the 
case of the former — called a sunk moulding — 
for, besides having the mitre to cut, the 
moulding has to be put on a mitre shoot and 
the ends planed with a trying-plane to the 
exact length and correct angle. 

Fitting the Mouldings. — The way to ascer- 
tain the cutting length of the moulding is to 
take a small piece, an inch or two in length, 
and lay it on the panel in the same position 
as that in which it is to be fixed, and as near 
the corner of each panel as it will go. Hold 
a pencil against the part which rests on the 
framing, and draw a little line | in. or so 
long. When each panel has been gone round 
in this way, the width of the rebate will be 
marked exactly. Cut the mitre at one end, 
lay the piece of moulding on, with the point 
to one of these marks, and mark the length 
J in. longer than the pencil mark on the 
opposite side of the panel ; the spare J in. 
will allow for planing to fit. Procure four 
pieces of wood, 3 in. or 4 in. long by 2J in. 
or 3 in. wide, and about the depth the panel 
is sunk down from the surface of the framing. 
Lay them flat on the panel, one at each 
corner, and place the four lengths of mould- 
ing on them, one at a t'.me, as they are shot. 
Make them fit closely one against the other, 
so that when the last is inserted it will want 



364 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



just a slight tap of the hammer to get it 
down level. With the aid of a bradawl or 
some sharp-pointed tool, slide out the four 
slips of wood, each towards the centre of the 
panel, and drive down the moulding. Lay 
a flat strip of wood across the panel corner- 



appearance and in other respects. A very 
good kind of jamb, however, is sometimes 
used when the doorway is in a 9-in. wall. 
Such jambs are called skeleton jambs. The 
stiles and rails are generally 3 in. by 1J in., 
but vary according to circumstances. They 




Fig. 1203. —Section through 
Internal Doorway, showing Jamb 
and part of Door in Section. 



i 



wise, and Strike this with the hammer, to 
prevent the moulding from being bruised. If 
the mitre shoot was true, every mitre will 
fit as closely and nicely as possible. 

Skeleton Jambs. — Every doorway must 
have a lining of some kind to hide the rough 
material of the wall. A single plain board, 
wide enough for a 14-in. or 18-in. brick wall, 
would be very unsatisfactory indeed in 



are planed true on one side and one edge, and 
mortised and tenoned, have three rails in 
the head (or soffit as it is called), and about 
four in the jambs or uprights, or perhaps 
five, according to height, but no panels. 
They are fixed in the opening, and the door 
is hung to them. To form the rebate, a wide 
strip of J-in. stuff is nailed on over the 
framing, showing a rebate on the oppooite 



DOORS AND DOOR FRAMES. 



365 



edge, to correspond with the one the door 
shuts into. It is similar to that shown in the 
illustration, but in the latter the rebate is 
taken out of the solid material, which should 
be of sufficient thickness to allow of this. 

Constructing Panelled Linings. — Panelled 
linings are more difficult to make. Fig. 1204 
I represents part of a horizontal section of an 
outer door frame, constructed of scantling, 
! set back 4J in. from the face of the wall in a 
' reveal in the brickwork, and showing panelled 
. lining. The frame is grooved on the inside 
iface. A plain lining is used when the re- 
quired width is only a few inches. One 
i edge is rebated to form a tongue, which fits 
into the groove and helps to hold the lining 
in place. It is also nailed to wood bricks 
| built in the sides of the opening ; the head is 




Fig. 1204.— Horizontal Section taken through 
Centre of Panels. 

nailed to the lintel. On the edge of the lining 
the architrave moulding is fixed, or a framed 
ground is used, in which case the ground 
would go on first and the architrave be fixed 
to it. The facing is a flat frame, having 
two stiles and a rail J in. or j in. thick at 
least. The rail is mortised into the stiles, and 
a return bead or moulding, worked on the 
inside edge, makes a better and bolder finish 
than the architrave moulding only. Exactly 
the same principles apply to the construction 
of panelled linings as in the case of ordinary 
doors. The first consideration in all framing 
is to get the stuff perfectly true on the face. 
Shoot one edge square and straight ; the 
other edge need only be jacked over. Gauge 
it to the required thickness if for a door, 
but in the case of panelled linings only one 
side is seen, so the back can be left rough. In 
setting out, put all the lines, both for the 
front and back edges, on one stile first, and 
use that for a pattern. Lay it flat on two 
blocks to raise it off the bench, lay the other 
stiles on, face to face or back to back, to get 



them in pairs, and square down the lot at 
once, if there are not too many. If pos- 
sible, reach over and square the back lines, 
putting the square to every line on the 
pattern. In wedging up, wedge the middle 
rail first, then the bottom, and lastly the top 
rail, unless there should be another between 
the middle and top rails, as in a six-panelled 
door, in which case this would be wedged 
before the top rail. The linings may be 
shot to the required width, and the rebate 
ploughed and planed out. The width of the 
rebate should equal the thickness ot the 
door ; its depth should be J in. It is always 
best to glue or screw a block, about 1 in. 
thick, on the back of the lining where the 
hinges come. Such blocks will receive the 
screws and give them a better hold. Wood 
bricks are built in as the brickwork pro- 
ceeds, to which the finings are fixed. In 
Fig. 1204, a signifies door frame, b panelled 
linings, c rough backing, d wood brick. 

Front = entrance Door and Frame. 

The front- entrance door, with sidelights 
and fanlights, illustrated by Figs. 1205 to 
1207, is suitable for a villa residence, or for 
the entrance to a conservatory attached to 
such a residence, and is often executed either 
in red deal or in pitch pine. The frame, 
which is worked out of 5J-in. by 3-in. stuff, 
has a large ovolo moulding worked round it, 
the mullions and transoms being similarly 
moulded ; it is set on a 3-in. stone sill, in a 
2J-in. recess, in 14-in. brickwork, with 4J-in. 
reveals. At the angles up the jambs and 
over the arch are 2-in. quirked, beaded, and 
stopped bricks. The arch bricks are gauged, 
and the rise of the arch is § in. to every foot 
of opening ; and the brickwork over the 
head is carried by a bressummer, a relieving 
arch being provided if desired. The doors 
and sidelights (the stiles of which are 
diminished) are out of 2-in. stuff, and may 
have an ovolo or other moulding worked on, 
and the top portions may be filled with plain, 
ornamental, or coloured glass. The bottom 
panels of doors are raised and bolection 
moulded. Linings, surmounted with archi- 
trave moulds rising from plain bases, are 
provided round the inside of the frame. The 
door is 7 ft. high by 3 ft. wide, and the side- 
lights are 7 ft. high by 1 ft. 6 in. wide — all 



366 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 




Fig. 1205. — Elevation of Entrance Door and Framing - . 




Fig. 1207. Plan of Entrance Door and Framing. 



DOORS AND DOOR FRAMES. 



367 



exclusive of rebates. The 
of the door is rebated and 
shuts against a 1-in. by f-in 




•bottom edge the fixed sidelights (see Fig. 1209), and is per- 
throated, and manently grooved into the bottom rail and 
wrought-iron bedded in red-lead. The inside face of the 
bressummer is lathed for plastering. The 
rib extending from the head of the frame to 
the soffit of the arch is out of 1-in. stuff, with 
a scotia worked on the bottom edge. Fig. 
1210 shows a part section of the door panels, 
which are bead flush inside ; the bevel of the 
raised portion of the outside of the panel will, 
of course, depend upon its width, but in no 
case must it rise above the line of the out- 
side member of the bolection moulding. 





Fig. 1208. — Section through 
Weather Bar, showing 
Weathering for Bottom 
Rail of Door. 



Fig. 1209.— Weather Joint 
between Bottom Rail of 
Side Framing and Stone 
Sill. 




Fig. 1210. — Section through Panels and Bolection 
Moulding. 

Fig. 1211 shows a section of the architrave 
moulding, which is 5J in. wide and 1J in. 
thick (reduced at the front edge to f in.) ; 
plinth blocks, 12 in. deep, receive the ends 




Fig. 1206.— Section through Entrance Door and 
Framing. 



weather bar as shown in Fig. 1208, which is 
Sunk and cemented J in. into the 3-in. 
stone step. A similar bar is let in under 



Fig. 1211 



of the moulding, beyond which they should 
show J in. margin at the front and ends, and 
-£, in. in front of beads both ways. The 
rods having been prepared, the work can 
be proceeded with. The frame will be 
made first. The selection of the stuff is 



368 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



sometimes left to the workman, and, as the 
jambs are out of 5| in. by 3 in., it will mean 
one rip down an 11 -in. by 3-in. plank. In 
some shops this size of stuff is kept ready for 
use. The correct lengths for cutting will be 
ascertained from the drawings, to which an 
inch or so must be added. The planing up 
must be done true and parallel, and in favour 
of the sticking side ; the backs that go 
next the brickwork, etc., need not be 



can be scribed, as shown at d (Fig. 1214). 
Then turn the stile with the rebated edge 
upwards, and mark for the shoulder in a 
similar manner to that shown in Figs. 1213 
and 1215. 

Setting Out Frame. — Take a thin slip of 
wood about 9 in. long, planed up J in. thick, 
and gauged off to If in. (the extent to which 
the ovolo works on) for 3 in. along it ; then 
gauge xf in. for another 2 in., which equals 




Fig. 1212. — Application of Slip for Setting Out 

Shoulders for Ovolo Edge of Posts and 

Muntins. 

touched, except for jacking over where the 
mortice gauge is run down. 

Frame and Linings. — Many of the pro- 
cesses involved in setting out and making the 
frame have already been explained in con- 
nection with cases previously treated. Thus, 




Fig. 1214.— Shoulders Set Out on Moulded 
Edge. 

the depth the ovolo works down ; then gauge 
J in. for the last 3 in., equal to the depth the 
rebate is worked down for the doors ; these 
should be accurately cut away down to the 
gauge lines, then the slip will have the 
appearance shown in Fig. 1216. Lay one 
jamb on the bench, mark and square off 




Fig. 1213.— Application of Slip for Setting Out 
Shoulders to" fit to Rebates. 

it w T ill only be necessary to explain the new 
features. Only the sight lines, not the 
shoulders, may be taken from the rod. The 
sight lines are the distances between the 
intersection of the square part of the 
frame as indicated at a in Figs. 1212 and 
1213. Then by means of a prepared slip, 
mark out for the moulding and rebate as 
follows : Now apply the slip with one edge 
against the sight line a (Fig. 1212) ; then, 
pricking off the breadth, as indicated at 
c, gives the point through which the shoulder 




Fig. 1215.— Shoulder Set Out for Rebated 
Edge. 

with the knife the line to cut off at bottom, 
mark off above this 7 ft. (the height of 
transom rail), then 2 J in. (the finished thick- 
ness of transom rail) ; above this mark 
1 ft. 6 in., and the head is reached. Mark 
the other jamb and the two mullions from 
this, of course using the slip for the shoulder 
of the muntin ; and at the point where the 
transom line crosses the mullions cut the latter 
in halves just midway between the shoulders. 
Allow for the shoulders on the jambs and 
mullions by using the ff-in. portion of the 



DOORS AND DOOR FRAMES. 



369 



slip (the depth the ovolo drops down) on 
the face edge and the J-in. portion (the depth 
of the rebate) on the back edge. The jambs 
must be squared round in pencil at the point 
where the transom enters, and room must 
be allowed for wedging at the back. Now 



T 



7T \ 



Fig. 1216. 



-Setting Out Slip for Moulding and 
Rebate for Frame. 



lay the head face upon the bench (it will 
have been cut off to about 7 ft. 6 in. long), 
square a line across it 6 in. from the end 
(this is the allowance for horn and mortice), 
set off 1 ft. 6 in., then the thickness of 
mullion, then 3 ft., again the thickness of 
mullion, and finally 1 ft. 6 in., leaving the 
other horn and mortice. Set out the tran- 
som from this, using the slips at the ends in 
the same way as with the jambs ; square 
round in pencil for the mortices and wedging 
room on the head ; but in the case of the 
transom the mortices will require marking 
square across on the top and under side with 
the knife. Now, with a mortice gauge set to 
the flat portion of jamb, gauge both back 
and front faces for mortices, and all round 
the ends for tenons. Set gauges to the slips, 
and run these down the stuff, the ~f in. 
down the face edge, the 1J in. down the 




Fig. 1217.— Piece of Frame : the End Set Out for 

Moulding and Rebate, and Ploughed for 

Rebating and Moulding. 

face from both edges, and the J in. down the 
back edge, these lines being for moulding 
and rebate. 

Mortising and Tenoning Frame. — The 
tenons should be cut down to the shoulder 

16* 



lines with a half-rip saw outside the gauge 
lines and shoulder to within J in. of saw 
cut. Mortices should be cut through square 
and true inside the gauge lines, and J-in. 
wedging room cut through straight and to 
within about 1 in. of face. 

Rebating. — Before rebating the frame, 
plough, with a f-in. iron, the back side for 
the inside lin'ngs, then, with the same iron 
set to -^ in., plough from the back edge for 
the rebate to within -^ in. of the gauge line. 
Chop out the intervening wood ; finish down 
to gauge line with a rebate plane, using the 
J-in. end of the slip to see that the correct 
depth is maintained on the back. 

Moulding.— As it would probably be diffi- 
cult to obtain an ovolo plane of the size re- 




Fig. 1218. — Finishing Ovolo Mould with Hollows. 

quired for this job, the moulding must be 
worked with hollows (unless it be machine 
made) ; and, to ensure accuracy, a zinc 
or cardboard template must be provided 
with which to mark the ends of the stuff. 
Plough grooves should be made as in- 
dicated at a and b (Fig. 1217) ; then waste 
c cut away with a, chisel. Work as near 
the line as possible with a jack plane. The 
round of the mould can be finished with 
hollows, as indicated at Fig. 1218. At least 
two should be used, the shape of the mould- 
ing being elliptical. Of course, in most large 
shops the moulding and rebating would be 
done at the machine, and only finished by 
hand. Assuming that the mouldings are 
all worked and the top edge of the tran- 
som is weathered, the sawing down of the 
tenon cheeks may be finished, the cheeks 
knocked off, and the mitering proceeded 
with. 



370 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY 



Mitering. — From the pattern of the mould- 
ing a reverse mould, about 8 in. or 9 in. 
long, should be worked (see Fig. 1219), and 
accurate mitres shot at each end. This will 
form the template with which to cut all 
mitres. Great care must be taken in this 
operation, the chisel not being allowed to go 
the least bit beyond the line cut by the 



Measuring for Doors and Lights. — Before 
removing the frame from the bench, it will 
be necessary to take the measurements for 
constructing the doors and lights. The 
proper way to do this is to set out the dead 
heights and widths on a lath. It should be 
done very accurately, to avoid subsequent 
errors. This lath will also be found useful 




Fig. 1219.— 
Mitering 
Template. 




setting-out knife. The parts of the frame 
here referred to as requiring" mitering and 
fitting together are shown by the enlarged 
conventional view, Fig. 1220. 

Putting Together Frame. — The jambs 
should be bored for drawing ; and the tenons 
of the mullions, where they butt-joint in the 
transom rail, should be bored for and held 
together with f in. glued oak or pitch pine 
dowels. The frame can now be put to- 
gether, pinned, and wedged up, then cleaned 
off, and the plough groove run along the 
head for the casing Mitre the cove round 
the rame, square the bottoms of jambs 
and mullions, and up the centre of each bore 
a f-in. hole, and drive in square galvanised 
iron dowels, leaving f-in. projections, which 
will be subsequently let into the step. The 
frame is now finished. 



Fig. 1220.— Conventional View 

of the Joints connecting the 

Parts of the Frame. 



in cutting off the stuff. Door stiles and 
rails should be made from stuff 2 in. thick, 
the bars from f-in. stuff ; and, in planing 
up, the best sides should, as far as possible, 
be selected for working the mouldings. 
After cutting the door stiles to the dimin- 
ished size, they should be planed up, and 
the tried-up mark put on the back edge, 
as an indication of the stage to which the 
work has been brought. 

Setting Out Doors and Lights.— The stuff 
for the top lights must be gauged to 2| in. 



DOORS AND DOOR FRAMES. 



^71 



by 1J in. ; for door and side light rails, 10J 
in. by If in. ; for the diminishing stiles for 
doors, 4| in. to 2§ in. by 1| in. ; for the side 
lights, 4 in. to 2f in. by If in. ; bars, 1J in. 
by f in. In setting out the stiles of the door, 
mark off on the back edge of one of them 
the dead height of the door from the rod, 
allowing J in. for fitting. Then mark on 
2§ in. for the top rail, 10J in. for the bottom 
rail ; and 3 ft. 2 in. from the bottom set off 
lOf in., which will be the top edge of the lock 
rail ; 2 in. from the inside marks of the top 
and ^ock rails, mark f-in. spaces for the 
transverse marginal bars. The marks must 
be squared round to the inside edge, and 
wedging room allowed on the back. Mark 



? CD 



rebate ; c equals the depth of the rebate 
for bars — namely, in this case, T \ in. In 
setting out the vertical marginal bars, from 
the back edge of the pattern stile set out 
one bar, then, placing it on the outside of 
the remainder of the bars, cramp them all 
together, and square across both sides for 
mortices and tenons ; note that the shoulders 
should be a shade long. These may now 
be set on one side ; but later, when the 




Fig. 1222. — Part Views of Lock Rail and Dimin- 
ished Stile of Door, indicating Method of 
Setting Out. 

the g^-in. portion of the slip (Fig. 1221) 
inside the top edge of the lock rail and the 
bottom edge of the top rail, this being the 
depth the ovolo mould works down, also the 
depth of the rebate. From this pattern 
stile, the other door stile and the stiles of the 
side lights, must be set out altogether and 
in pairs. Previous to setting-out, it will be 
necessary to make the slip (Fig. 1221) for 
setting-out purposes. This slip, it need not be 
said, must agree in essential particulars with 
the proposed moulding and rebate. Assum- 
ing that the mould selected works f in. on 
and ^2 m - down, the slip, when made, will 
have the appearance shown, and may be 
explained thus : a equals the depth the 
ovolo works on ; b equals the depth the ovolo 
works down, and is also the depth of the 



41 



\ 



mortice gauge is set, run it round them as 
they are, and cut the shoulders with a dove- 
tail saw, proper haunchings being left in all 
cases. Rails of doors and lights should be 
set out from the rod, the width of stiles 
set back, and the width of the slip at b set 
forward, and the shoulders squared round, 
the setting out of these being done as de- 
scribed in connection with Figs. 1198 to 1200. 
Cross bars may be set out from this, allow- 
ing them to be slightly longer for good 
joints. The setting out of the top lights 
is a simple matter, the height of the stiles 



372 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



being marked from the rod. Below is the 
method of setting out the lock rail, the 
letters corresponding to those in Fig. 1222, 
which is supposed to be an inside view, 
the opposite end to the lock ; it is therefore 
not double-tenoned : a is the shoulder line 
under side of rail ; B is the vertical line with 
a ; b to c is the difference between width 
of stile at top and bottom — namely If in. ; 
c to d is the depth the ovolo works down ; 
e to a is the shoulder line. In setting out 
mark a on bottom of rail and b on top, set on 
c and d with the slip ; gauge down to e 
and mark e to a. In setting out the dimin- 
ishing stiles, F is the point where the bottom 








tf^L^tM 




ffiiSK 


^^c$ 


'k- ' — — - _ - ~~\ . 


— — — • — . < 



Fig. 1223.— Views showing Haunching and Scribing 
between Top Rail and Stile. 

of the rail joins the stile, and corresponds 
with a ; g is the point where the top of the 
rail joins the stile, and corresponds with c ; 
h is the point where the shoulder line com- 
mences ; i is the depth the ovolo works 
down ; k is the surplus stuff on the edge of 
the stile ; l is the point of intersection of h 
and i ; l to r is the shoulder line. In 
setting out, proceed as follows : Mark f and 
g, mark h on with the slip, run the gauge 
line down i ; also from the point where H 
and i connect l and f. In making the joint 
after mortising, tenoning, moulding, and 
ploughing are done — at the point E on the 
rail, pare down square to the tenon before 
scribing the ovolo. After the surplus stuff 
k on the stile has been cut away and the 
shoulder cut and pared true, cut out the 
groove for the haunching. The ovolo will 
require working with gouges up to the point 
l on the stile, and the rebate must be pared 
out with the chisel up to the same point. 
Fig. 1206 shows a section through the door 



and framing and fanlight, also the lintel 
and finishings inside the door frame, of 
which a plan is shown by Fig. 1207. 

Mortising and Tenoning Door. — The setting 
out having been completed, the stuff must 
be gauged for mortices and tenons, the 
mortice gauge being set for a f-in. chisel, 
and the nearest prick mark from the face 
being set to the slip at h. One end of 
the lock rail and the corresponding stile 
of the door must be gauged for double 
tenons as in the previous example, the 
gauge being set for a -^--in. chisel, and 
■yq in. from face for one tenon and mortice 
and 1J in. from the face for .the other. The 
mortices being made and tenons cut down 
to the home line, the shoulders may be 
partly cut in. The stuff may now be rebated 
for the glass, using a sash fillister, and the 
ovolo worked on each portion at the same 
time, using No. 1 moulding plane first, and 
finishing off with No. 2. The bars must be 
worked on a sticking board, which may be 
made from a piece of 7-in. by lj-in. stuff 
about 6 ft. long. The bars are held in posi- 
tion against a screw stop at one end, and 
by a bench knife at the other. The stiles 
should be ploughed for the panels, the tenon 
cheeks cut off, and the tenons cut to fit 
the mortices, proper haunchings being 
allowed. 

Haunching, Scribing, etc. — The ends of the 
rails for haunching and scribing purposes 
are shown by Fig. 1223. These have been 
described and illustrated in Figs. 1196 to 
1198; a equals the portion cut back on 
the end of the rails to the depth of the 
rebate to fit round the square left on after 
moulding and rebating at b on the stile ; 
c is a face view of the rail with dotted 
lines showing the direction and extent 
of the cutting back at a. The rails only 
require partly scribing through as shown at 
e (Fig. 1223), and a piece will be required 
to be taken out of the stiles to correspond 
with the square shoulder above these. The 
scribing may now be done, and particular 
attention must be paid to the intersection of 
the lock rail and stile at e and h in Fig. 
1222. The scribing templates and gouges 
will of course be required for this process. 

Panels. — The doors and lights may now 
be knocked together, and the size of the 



DOORS AND DOOR FRAMES. 



373 



panels obtained. . Face up the back sides 
of the panels ; mark equal width between 
the stiles, and gauge the edges for the distance 
between the top of bottom rail and the 
bottom of lock rail. Set a mortice gauge to 
b c (Fig. 1222) and run all round. Work down 
to c across endwise with a saw, and with a 
rebate plane and side fillister with the grain. 
Rebate out for letting in flush beads e across 
endwise, and prepare and fix these beads 
up to the dotted lines. Square across at 
a and gauge the corresponding widths 
down both sides. Cut down from a to d 
with the tenon saw, and remove the waste 
portions. The corresponding portions with 
the grain should be ploughed and knocked 
off with mallet and chisel ; afterwards clean 
off and smooth up with shoulder and smooth- 
ing plane. Note that the margin from b to d 
should be slightly bevelled towards b ; this 
permits the bolection moulding to be planted 
solid in front. Of course, a thinner panel 
may be preferred to the bead and flush 
described, with a moulding planted round 
inside, but that is optional. When the 
panels are prepared, knock off a stile on one 
side of framing, put in the panel, and re- 
place the stile. 

Completing Front-entrance Door and 
Frame. — The doors and lights may now be 
glued, cramped, and wedged up and cleaned 
off, and the bolection mouldings mitred 
and planted in. The frame having been 
fixed, the bottom and top side lights must 
be fitted to a joint (the bottom rails of the 
side lights being ploughed for the water bar), 
but the rebates and edges should be well 
painted before nailing. The fanlight must 
be fitted so that it will swing, and it should 
be hung with two 3J-in. wrought-iron butts 
on the bottom edge, being kept in position 
and made to swing by using a patent 
quadrant fastener. In fitting the door, suf- 
ficient play must be allowed for it to open 
and shut easily, and it should be hung with 
three 4-in. wrought-iron butt hinges. A 
7-in. mortice lock should be fitted, and, to 
facilitate the letting in of this lock, the end 
of the lock rail should be bored before the 
door is put together. To do this, bore the 
first hole to a depth of about 3 in., fill it up 
again with an easily fitting piece of round 
stuff (prepare a piece sufficient to make 



half a dozen), and cut off long enough to 
stand up about J in., to allow grip with 
pincers ; bore the second hole on the circum- 
ference of the first. Then withdraw the 
first core by gripping with pincers, and fill 
up the second hole ; bore the third hole on 
the circumference of the second, and then 
remove the second core, and so on. When 
finished, it' will be found that there is com- 
paratively little stuff left to clear out. It 
is obvious that it would be impossible to 
bore so much out if temporary cores were 
not put in ; moreover, the bit has a ten- 
dency to run into the adjoining hole when 
the holes are bored too close together. The 
size of bit to use in this case will be § in. 
The bottom rail of the door must be rebated 
for the water bar, also throated. This bar 
is only inserted in exposed situations, or 
where there is no portico. It keeps the rain 
from getting under the door, and should 
not therefore, from the fear that it may 
become a stumbling block, be omitted. 
The linings will be prepared from the draw- 
ings, and are tongued together at the top, 
and fixed securely to wood pads or bricks 
built in the wall. The plinth blocks being 
fixed at the bottom, and the architrave 
moulding mitred at the corners and fixed 
round, will complete the job. 

Double = margin Doors. 

Double-margin doors ^are generally used 
when a door opening is wide in propor- 
tion to its height. They are framed as 
one piece and then hung. The arrange- 
ment of the panels varies according to 
the taste of the architect or the design 
of the building in which the door is placed. 
The example shown in Fig. 1224 is a door for 
an opening 7 ft. 3 in. high and 4 ft. 1 in. 
wide. The panels have been arranged to be 
of equal size, while the framing shows aD 
equal margin except in the case of the 
bottom rail. In one method of construction 
the middle stile is in two separate pieces, 
in which case there are really two separate 
leaves joined to make a single door ; or 
the middle stile can be in one piece, in 
which case it assumes more of the character 
of a muntin than of a stile. In Fig. 1225, 
which represents a horizontal section through 
the panels of Fig. 1224, the door is shown 



374 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 




Fig. 1224.— Double-margin Door, External Elevation. 




Fig. 1225.— Horizontal Section of Double-margin Door. 




Fig. 1226.— Plan showing Centre Stile Fitted 
Over Top Rail. 



Fig. 1227.— View of Top Rail prepared to 
receive End of Centre Stile. 



DOORS AND DOOR FRAMES. 



375 



with the middle stile in two pieces, but the 
elevation remains the same for either 
method. When the middle stile is con- 
structed in two portions, each half of the 




Fig. 1228.- 



-Securing Intermediate Rails by 
Fox Wedging. 



door is framed together, but not glued 
up. Then the rails are glued and wedged 
to each half of the middle stile and allowed 
to dry. The two halves of the middle stile 
are then shot and fitted. The ends of the 
tenons to the rails' should be cut J in. 
below the joining surfaces of the middle 
stile, so as to prevent the joint being forced 



strengthen double-margin doors, iron bars 
are sometimes let into the top and bottom 
rails, and screwed to them. In this case 
the bars should stop short of each edge of 
the door, so as not to show on the edge. 
Another and more general method of con- 
structing a double-margin door will be ex- 
plained in a later example. 

Composite Door, 

This class of door is unusual in ordinary 
joinery work, but is occasionally employed 
for showing two classes of treatment in 
detail. This is essentially a soft pine door, 
with a veneered oak face, the oak face being 
on the room side, so as to correspond with 
oak furniture and fittings ; the pine, finished 
with either white or cream enamel, faces a 
corridor. The centre panel on the painted 
side of the door forms a notice-board for 
posting lecture announcements, etc., as in 
a school of science or college laboratory. 
Fig. 1231 (scale = J in. to 1 ft.) represents 
an elevation of the corridor side (painted), 
and Fig. 1232 a vertical section through door 
and opening. Fig. 1233 shows the room side, 
with the oak face with round-edged framing 
and raised panel. Two methods of con- 
struction are illustrated by Figs. 1234 and 
1235 ; the former shows the pine stiles, 



"775^5 



wmm, 



Fig. 1229. — Horizontal Section through Centre" 
Stiles when in Two Pieces. 

in case of shrinkage. Fig. 1226 is a plan 
of the top rail. When the middle stile is in 
one piece, the top and bottom rails are con- 
tinuous, and fit over the middle stile by the 
use of a bridle joint, similar to that shown 
in Fig. 1227. To prevent the shoulders 
rising one above the other, cross tongues 
can be used as shown. The same plan of 
joining the top and bottom rails to the 
middle stile can be adopted when the stile 
is in two pieces. As the tenons in the middle 
stile cannot be wedged in the ordinary way, 
it is best to fox-wedge them as shown in 
Fig. 1228, to prevent the shoulder joints 
from starting (a section on the line a b 
is shown by Fig. 1229). Further to 



Fig. 1230. — Horizontal Section through Panels, 
Moulding, etc. 

etc., containing the oak sandwiched between 
them. The two faces of the oak are glued 
simultaneously, and pressed between the 
pine by suitable shop methods ; then, when 
the work is thoroughly dry, it is ripped down 
by hand, or sawn down the middle with a 
circular saw, forming two stiles, etc. When 
the door is framed up, glued up, and partly 
cleaned off, the lock stile is veneered on the 
edge ; the tenons being well cut back, for 
obvious reasons. The hinge stile is not ve- 
neered. Fig. 1235 shows an alternative way 
of treating the stiles, the detail showing the 
edge veneered first and then the face. Of 
course the tenons on this side will be blind, 
but will run through the hinge stile. All 



376 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 




o 



° s 



to 








o 

.a o 

o .a 

I Pi 



DOORS AND DOOR FRAMES. 



377 



glue surfaces should be toothed on the veneer- 
ing faces ; the sponge and hot water are 
freely used on the work in progress if perfect 

| joints are required ; and the work must be 

| done in a warm temperature. 

Panels, etc., of Composite Door. — The 

I panels are double (composite), oak and pine, 




Fig. 1234. Fig. 1235. 

Figs. 1234 and 1235.— Isometric Details of Methods 
of Jointing Oak for Door. 




Fig. 1236.— Sectional 
Detail of Frieze Rail, 
showing Double 
Panels. 



Fig. 1237.— Detail 
showing Shutting 
Stile Veneered on 
Edge. 



with a composite centre panel covered with 
green or dark red baize, to receive the notices, 
etc. On the oak side the panels are raised, 
with a bead on the flat as shown, to be 
worked in the solid. Figs. 1236 and 1238 show 
clearly the panelling and framing. All panels 
must have glued pine blocks (dry) between 
them, as usual in double-panelled doors of 
thin sectioned panels. The rounded edge 
to the framing of the oak side will be found 
to accentuate the raised panels, without mak- 
ing the door too bold on the interior or 
room side. The panels on the painted side 
have ordinary ovolo mouldings glued and 



sprigged to the framing (not) 'to the panels). 
The mouldings to the baize-covered panel 
are neatly held in place with small brass cups 
and screws, to allow the easy removal of the 
baize when worn or damaged. Figs. 1238 
and 1239 show sections of the architraves 
(oak and deal), the panelled jambs, plinths, 
blocks, etc., of the oak face. All mitres on 
the oak side must be well glued, screwed, 
and pelleted. The coke breeze lintel over the 
door opening (Fig. 1238) is reinforced with 








Fig. 1239. 



Fig. 1238. 



1238 and 1239. — Details of Architraves and 
Top Rail of Door in Section. 



expanded metal. The silver-grain of the 
oak is shown to its best advantage by arrang- 
ing to have either fine-grained framing and 
coarse-grained panels, or the reverse. All 
the architraves must be dovetailed to plinth 
blocks. The shutting stile is prepared for a 
mortice lock ; and the door is hung with steel 
bushed brass hinges. The tenons double 
at every joint in the framing. The edges of 
the deal jambs in which the door shuts are 
stained oak colour. The hinge side is painted 
to match the exterior face. 

Baize= covered Doors. 

Two methods of constructing baize- 
covered doors will now be described. Flat 
surfaces on each side of the door are usual, 
but a flush -panel door will answer admirably 



378 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



if the flush side only is required to be 
covered. Figs. 1240 and 1241 show respec- 
tively front elevation and section, and it 
will be seen that in order to lighten the 
door, J-in. full panels (from f-in. stuff in 
the rough) are used, double or flush each side. 
To stiffen these panels, J-in. thick by 6-in. 
wide cross-rails are tenoned into muntins 




Fig. 1240. Fig. 1241. 

Fig. 1240. — Front Elevation of Double-panel Baize- 
covered Door. 
Fig. 1241.— Vertical Section (Fig. 1240). 

and side stiles respectively, as shown in Fig. 
1242, which shows also the back rebating of 
the panels. The panels are centrally screwed 
to these stiffeners, thus allowing freedom 
for shrinkage from sides to middle. The 
tenons are of the usual kind for this class of 
door. Figs. 1243 and 1244 show an alterna- 
tive method of construction, which would 
be cheaper if machine-worked stuff were used. 
The framing is mortised and tenoned, and 
is covered on both sides with tongued and 
grooved boards forming the flush faces of 
the door. Bracing can be used, but if the 



boards are partly glued on, the door will be 
found to be sufficiently rigid, and free from 
any tendency to drop. Fig. 1241 shows a top 
corner, and indicates the method of con- 
struction. 

Covering Doors with Baize. — The cover- 
ing applied to this class of door should be of 
the best quality procurable, and should be 
obtained of such a width as to prevent waste. 
It is fastened on with stout tacks into plough 
grooves on the edges and at the sides, as 
shown in Fig. 1246, which represents a hori- 




Fig. 1242. — Cross Rail acting as Stiffener to 
Panels. 

zontal section of door stiles for a swing door, 
the edges of which should preferably be 
rounded slightly, to prevent the baize from 
being cut by the stretching process. It is 
customary to line out the panels by means of 
round-headed brass nails of French manu- 
facture, and further to elaborate the baize 
by using green tape of a lighter or darker 
tint (see Fig. 1247) ; but these are matters of 
taste. The tape is neatly nailed to chalk 
lines sprung at the proper spacing, and 
should be kept moderately taut while nail- 
ing on. In the case of the double-panel 
door, the nails should, if possible, clear the 
groove. If baize-covered doors are used in 
entrances near the street, they are apt to 



DOORS AND DOOR FRAMES. 



379 



harbour dust, and to be spattered with mud, 
and the lower part of doors in this situation 
should be covered with an oak board about 
J in. thick, and of any suitable width, and 
painted to match. 

Circular Doors. 

The door (Fig. 1248) about to be described 
is on plan curved to a 2-ft. radius, but it 



glass can be replaced when necessary with- 
out injuring the door or beads. Fig. 1251 




Fig. 1243. 



Fig. 1244. 



Fig. 1243. — Elevation showing Alternate Methods 
of Constructing Baize-covered Door. 

Fig. 1244.— Vertical Section (Fig. 1243). 

may, of course, have any sweep desired. It 
should always be set out from a centre, as the 
shoulder lines will be struck from the centre 
point. The panels are bead flush, with bolec- 
tion moulding mitered round the front as 
shown in plan by Fig. 1249, also by Fig. 1250, 
which is an enlarged section at the top edge 
of the bottom rail, with the panel and mould- 
ing on the outside and the bead flush on the 
inside. The top space is left for glass, which 
is secured by means of beads screwed round 
the stiles and rails ; by this arrangement the 




Fig. 1245. —Detail of Top Corner (Fig. 1243). 

is an enlarged section at the top edge of the 
middle rail with the glass and beads in posi- 
tion. The wood used in circular work must 




Fig. 1246. — Fastening Ends of Covering. 

be thoroughly seasoned and free from defects. 
In beginning a job of this sort, it is necessary 
to make a template and set it out full size on 




Fig. 1247. — Covering and Taping Baize. 

a board from a centre. When this has been 
done, the ribs may be prepared. The plank 



3S0 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



it is intended to use should be trued up out 
of winding and gauged to the required thick- 
ness. The trammel with which the plan 
has been set out can be used to line out the 



A 





Fig. 1249. —Plan of Door (Fig. 1248). 



Fig. 1250.— Section 
through Top Edge 
of Bottom Rail (Fig. 
1248). 



Fig. 1251.— Section 
through Top Edge 
of Middle Rail (Fig. 
1248). 



Fig. 1248. — Front Elevation of Circular Door. 

ribs for the three rails ; these can be cut 
out with a band-saw, or with a side-saw if the 
former is not available. A side-saw (see 
Fig. 1252) is much like a bow-saw, only it is 
worked up and down ; l and R show respec- 
tively the position of left and right hand 
when using the saw. The ribs having been 
cut out and toothed ready for gluing to- 
gether, it will be seen (Fig. 1253) that they are 




Fig. 1252.— Side Saw for Cutting Rails, etc. 



[7^=7 


'-TJF^T- 


-.JH^?— 


S^S^i- 






' ~ ~ 


r-= ~~-=~' 


^j^_^=-. 


-^^— \ri= 


i 




- - - 


— ~~ 


~ "" 


~^E^£~=L=£ 




--\~i 




^E=h^z. 


_-:- t^-: 


jrUjssii£ 







Fig. 1253.— Building Up Rails in Ribs. 



DOORS AND POOR FRAMES. 



381 



butt- jointed ; by this arrangement strength 
is gained, as any two pieces coming together 
will not be of continuous grain. Care must 
be taken, too, to break the joints as shown 
in Fig. 1253. All the butt joints may be cut 
before commencing gluing ; the ends may 
be left till the work is dry. It is necessary to 
warm the sides that are to be glued. All 



m 



Fig. 1254.— Method of Securing Veneer for Circular 
Door. 

these joints are secured by means of screws 
or nails (screws preferred), care being taken 
that they are not in the way of the mortices 
and tenons. 

Panels, etc., of Circular Doors. — The panels 
may be got out in widths according to the 
width of the finished panel, which is a little 
over 10 in., so it may be made in three pieces 
and shot to a proper bevel to suit the rails, 
and likewise glued and set aside to dry. 




Fig. 1255.— Joint of Lock Rail of Circular Door. 

The stiles call for little remark beyond the 
setting out of the mortices, which are indi- 
cated by dotted lines (Fig. 1248), where 
the rail is broken away to show the tenon 
in position, wedged. The rails and panels 
may be cleaned off to the template and taken 
true out of winding and prepared for cover- 
ing with veneer, which must be saw-cut. 



In some doors or framing this is omitted. 
The veneer is held in position with a caul, 
Which is a piece of zinc large enough to cover 
the whole of the veneer ; pieces of wood, 
cut to fit the sweep, are then laid across and 
squeezed tightly down with thumb- or hand- 
screws (see Fig. 1254). Fig. 1255 is an en- 
larged isometric drawing of the joint at the 
middle or lock rail, showing ^-in. double 
tenons with a f-in. space between to allow 
for a mortice lock ; these double tenons are 
only employed where the lock is to be fitted, 
the remainder of the tenons being single. 
All tenons must be carefully cut and fitted, 
so that when the door is ready to be wedged 
up they will be just hand-tight, otherwise 
the shoulders will not come well up. The 
panels are prepared for veneering in the same 
way as the rails, and are held in position 
with a tongue that fits into a groove, as 
shown by Fig. 1250. A small bead is worked 
on the sides of the panels, but those on the 
ends are mitred and planted on. The 
mouldings and beads are got out to suit the 
proper sweeps, and worked with routers, 
which can be obtained in sufficient variety 
to suit any kind of moulding. 

Double = margin Door with Circular 
Frame and Splayed Linings. 

The door and frame illustrated by Figs. 
1256 to 1272 is a kind sometimes adopted 
for the entrances to large and important 
buildings in which it is more convenient 
to have one wide door than two folding 
doors, although when closed it has the 
appearance of two, as shown. In this class 
of building the door, frame, linings, archi- 
traves, etc., are frequently made of some 
hard wood, such as oak, mahogany, or teak, 
and finished by trench polishing. The 
ordinary fixing by visible nailing, screwing, 
etc., is not permissible ; the holes thus 
formed cannot be stopped with putty as 
for painted work. This example will be 
treated so as to meet the specification and 
drawings demanding secret fixing as far 
as practicable. The leading dimensions are 
figured on the drawings, and the chief new 
features are described below. 

The Rod. — For a job of this description, 
the rod should be clearly and fullv set out, 



.182 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 




fW 



^~n 




Fig. 1257. 



Fig. 1256.— Front Eleva- 
tion. Fig. 1257.— Half 
Horizontal Section 
through Lower Panels, 
and Half Horizontal 
Section through Centre 
Panels on Lines A B and 
C D. Fig. 1258.— Ver- 
tical Section through 
Centre of Fanlight and 
Centre of Panels. 



DOORS AND DOOR FRAMES. 



383 




Fig. 1259.— Inside Elevation. 



as an attempt to save time here may lead 
to costly errors. The architect's drawings 
i should be carefully consulted, particularly 
the enlarged details to half-inch or larger 
scale, together with full-size sections of 
mouldings and panels, which are generally 
supplied by leading architects. If the 
building is sufficiently advanced, it is well 



to test between the reveals and the spring- 
ing, in case any slight discrepancy has 
occurred in the dimensions between the 
masonry and the drawings. From the in- 
formation thus obtained, the rod can be set 
out. This would show the whole of the plan 
or horizontal section of the woodwork as 
at Fig. 1257. A complete vertical section 



384 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 




Fig. 1260. -Enlarged Detail of Upper Part of 
Vertical Section (Fig. 1258). 



of the woodwork should be set out for the 
heights as at Fig. 1258. For the framing, 
the head and fanlight, the linings and archi- 
traves, a board should be used large enough 
to strike out the main lines of each of these ; 
and it will be found very useful for setting 
out these various parts. 

The Frame. — The posts should be set 
out for the tenons of the transom. By 
reference to Figs. 1259 and 1260, it will be 
seen that the transom is built up, and that 
two equal - sized tenons are made, the 
bottom edges of which are level with the 
rebate. The mitering of the mouldings 
between the posts and transom is shown 
at Fig. 1260, and, as explained in previous 
examples, this must be allowed for in set- 
ting out. It should be noted that the 
tenon to the inner portion of the transom a 
(Figs. 1259 and 1260) has the upper portion 
of it haunched into the post, and does 
not have a tenon the whole width. The 
pieces to form the circular head should 
next be cut out. Make a template from 
the rod, and line out the stuff for the 
head " full." The head may be in two 
pieces, with a joint at the crown, or in 
three pieces, which is perhaps a little more 
economical in material, but the former no 
doubt involves less labour in jointing and 
even in moulding. The crown joint should 
be accurately made, and must also fit when 
placed on the rod. This joint may be held 
together by a hammer-headed key and 
tongues, or by a stout handrail screw and 
dowels, which is the more modern method 
and equally effectual. The joints between 
the posts and head at the springing may 
be held together by handrail screws and 
dowels, but the hammer-headed key tenon, 
as illustrated at Fig. 1260, is still in favour. 
When the head and posts are tried together, 
and the joints temporarily tightened up, 
the posts must be quite parallel and ex- 
actly the same distances apart, and the 
joints must be eased until thus correct. The 
soffit of the head, as it is not yet trued up, 
should project over the posts a little. This 
projection should be carefully scribed from 
the posts, and then by means of a template 
or radius rod the curve for the soffit can be 
set out. It will be found an advantage to 
turn the frame over and mark the other 



DOORS AND DOOR FRAMES. 



385 



side as well. The pieces can now be separ- 
ated and the soffit planed to the lines by 
a compass plane or other similar means. 
The setting out, the mortising, and the tenon 



and rounds. For working the curved 
mouldings of the head, small hollows and 
rounds, known as thumb planes, or some 
other method, would be adopted, as will 




Fig. 1261. — Conventional Detail of 

Joints, etc., of Post, Head, and 

Transom. 



cutting""(not shoulders) having beei 
a pattern of the moulds, made of a piece of 
hardwood or zinc, should be marked on 
the ends of the several pieces. If machinery 
is at hand, the mouldings would be stuck 
by it, and would only require finishing by 
hand. If all the work is to be done by 
hand, gauge lines should be run round, and 
a series of rebates and grooves made, and 
the curved members finished with hollows 

17 




Fig. 1262.— Enlarged Section through Lower Panel 
Moulding. Door Post, etc. 



386 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



be described in a later section. Sometimes 
these circular heads are built up of two thick- 
nesses, the joint taking place in a line with 
the stop part of the rebate. One layer is 
formed of one more piece than the other, 
to " break joint," and the two layers are 
glued and screwed together as illustrated 
at Fig. 1263, the screws being inserted 
outside the line of the seen margin. This 
method is somewhat more economical in 
material and labour, as rebating out of the 
solid is avoided, and on this account it is 
more frequently adopted for ordinary work. 
Some leading architects, however, would 
not sanction this method of construc- 
tion. The mouldings should be mitered, 
and the shoulders between the post and 
transom prepared ; these should be 
loosened, glued, wedged and tightened up, 
cleaning off the flat surfaces and the 
junction of the mouldings. This will com- 
plete the frame, excepting the cornice por- 
tion of the outside part of the transom, 
which should be prepared and fitted in and, 
if desired, fixed ; but sometimes it is more 
convenient to fix this temporarily only, so 
that it can be more easily scribed to the 
stonework after the frame is in position. 

Splayed Linings. — The head part of these 
may be built up in sections or veneered 
and blocked. The method of preparing 
these will be fully described in the section 
dealing with the subject. 

Framed Grounds. — The architraves being 
wide, the grounds are framed of strips of 
stuff 2 in. or more wide for stiles, and 
pieces 2 in. to 4 in. wide for rails. These 
are simply mortised and tenoned together, 
and glued and wedged in the usual way, and 
they would be continued round the circular 
head as shown at Fig. 1264. A simple way 
of jointing up the parts round the head is 
to have the rails about 4 in. wide, tenoned 
at each end, and the curved stiles fitting on 
to these with open mortices, as will be 
understood by reference to Fig. 1264. These 
would be fixed round the opening flush with 
the edge of the splayed linings by nailing 
to wood bricks or other usual means. 

Architraves. — These being wide and vary- 
ing much in thickness, the jamb portions 
are prepared in two pieces, grooved and 
tongued together as illustrated. The archi- 



trave round the head could be prepared to 
fit together in two pieces, in breadth the 
same as those for the jambs, but of course 
each portion would be formed of at least 
two or three pieces round the semicircle, 
and breaking joint with the one above it. 
Another method would be to build up the 
head moulding in four thicknesses, making 
each thickness break joint with that below 
it, as illustrated at Fig. 1265, gluing together 
and screwing from the back. A method of 
connecting the circular head architrave 
to the vertical parts is shown at Fig. 1266. 
At the back a lap dovetail is made on the 
end of the member, fitting into a corre- 
sponding recess made in the circular one ; 
by gluing, cramping and screwing, and 
leaving till dry, a good sound joint can thus 
be made. 

Secret Fixing of Architraves. — The com- 
plete architrave must be offered up in posi- 
tion, the side margins accurately regulated, 
and, setting a pair of compasses from the 
arris of the head lining to the edge of the 
architrave less the amount of margin to be 
shown, scribe the bottom of the archi- 
traves to the floor. The plinth at the 
bottom of the outer members of the archi- 
trave not extending the whole breadth, 
the outer members are cut away and the 
plinth blocks fitted as shown at Fig. 1272, 
the two parts being firmly held together 
by gluing and screwing from the back. 
The system of fixing here shown is by 
boring a series of holes in the back of 
the architraves, as illustrated at Figs. 
1267 to 1269. A hole is bored a little 
larger than the head of a screw, about 
J in. or f in. deep ; then with a bit the 
size of the shank of the screw a second hole 
is bored about f in. above ; the wood be- 
tween the two holes is mortised out, leaving 
a chase ; then, by using a very thin chisel or 
other convenient tool, a V-shaped slot is 
formed on each side of this chase as indi- 
cated at a (Fig. 1267) ; then, taking a screw 
(the same size as the one to be used) turned 
into a piece of hardwood and allowed to 
project the exact required distance, insert 
the screw into the holes in turn, and, 
striking the end of the wood, drive the 
screw head along the V-shaped chase made 
in the backs of the architraves. Now, 



DOORS AND DOOR FRAMES. 



387 




Fig. 1263.— Method 01 Building Up Circular Head in Two 
Thicknesses. 




Fig. 1264.— Part Elevation of Framed Grounds. 





^m 



li&a 



Fig. 1266.— Method of 

Jointing Circular Head and 

Vertical Architraves. 



Fig. 1265.— Method of Building Up for Circular Architrave. 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



marking the exact positions for the centre 
of the screws on to the grounds (these, 
of course, exactly corresponding to the 
chases on the back of the architraves), 
turn screws into these so that the heads 
project exactly the same distance as that 
in the hardwood block mentioned. When 
the architraves are placed against the 
grounds and lifted about | in. from the 
floor, the heads of the screws should sink 






Fig. 1267. 

Figs. 1267, 1268, and 1269.— Preparing Slots for 
Screws. 

into the holes made for them in the back ; 
then, by forcing and jarring the architraves 
down, the screws will firmly hold them, if 
the work has been carefully and accurately 
done. The complete architrave may now be 
raised and taken down, and the edge against 
the splayed linings rapidly glued. It is 
then put back and finally jarred and 
forced into its permanent position. 

The Door. — The preparing of the framing 
of this will, in a general way, be similar 
to the cases previously treated. It is 



essentially two doors. After the parts of 
these have been prepared and fitted together, 
and additional mortices made through 




Fig. 1268. 

the meeting stiles as indicated at a (Fig. 
1270) to receive wedges, the two separate 
leaves have the joints of their meeting 
stiles and rails glued, cramped and wedged 
up without any panels or moulding being 




Fig. 1269. 

in. Then the two meeting stiles are shot 
so as accurately to fit, and both leaves are 
in one plane ; then the meeting edges are 



DOORS AND DOOR FRAMES. 



ci: 



«=V: 



: : i 



Fig. 1270. — Skeleton Framing for Double-margin 
Door. 



LUib 








Fig. 1272.— Conventional View of Architrave and 
Base Block reversed at Fig. 1262. 



moulded, or beaded and ploughed for 
tongues (see Fig. 1254). Hardwood keys or 
wedges are prepared, and sometimes addi- 
tional gib pieces a (Fig. 1270) are also 
provided ; cross tongues are glued into one 
of the stiles ; then both the meeting edges 
are glued ; the wedges are also glued and 
quickly inserted, cramps put on, and the 




Fig. 1271. — Conventional Sectional View of Rail, 
Panels, etc., at A (Fig. 1259). 

wedges connecting the stiles finally driven 
tight. After the glue is dry, the ends of 
these are cut out level with the bottom of 
the plough grooves. The panels can then 
be inserted and the door wedged up. The 
bolection mouldings on the outside, as 
also those on the inside, are to be held in 
position without visible fixing. There- 
fore, these mouldings have been provided 



390 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 







Fig. 1273.— Outside Elevation of Doors, Frame, 
Fanlight, etc. 




Fig. 1274.— Plan of Masonry at Level of Springing, 

Horizontal Section of Doors taken through Upper 

Panels. 



with small tongues which fit 
into corresponding plough 
grooves made in the stiles and 
rails as illustrated. This system 
of construction necessitates the 
preparing and cleaning off (all 
but the final finish) of the 
shoulders and framework gene- 
rally before wedging up, because 
very little of this can be done 
afterwards owing to the mould- 
ings having to be fitted. Their 
mitres are often grooved for 
tongues or slip feathers, and thus 
have to be placed in their 
positions before the wedging up 
takes place. The conventional 
detail at a (Fig. 1271) will make 
clear the construction at the 
apron panel and moulding, and 
also that at the back. The joint 
at the end of the architrave with 
base blocks is shown at Fig. 1272. 

Entrance Doors and Frame, 
Circular on Plan, and 
Circular = headed in Ele= 
vation. 

Fig. 1273 shows the elevation 
of a pair of doors at the corner 
of an important stone building. 
The frame has a circular 
head, fanlight, etc. The corner 
is circular, forming a quadrant 
of 6 ft. radius, corresponding 
with the plan of the building. 
The doors and frame follow the 
same curve, as shown by the 
plan, Fig. 1274. The masonry 
arch is semicircular in elevation, 
and stilted 4 in. The outer 
arris of the soffit of the arch 
is taken as a semicircle (see 
ab, Fig. 1273). The reveals 
radiate, and therefore the soffit 
at the springing on each side 
also radiates, but it finishes 
level at the crown as shown at 
c. Thus the arris of the soffit 
of the arch adjacent to the head 
of the door frame is elliptical 
in elevation, as shown ; and it 



DOORS AND DOOR FRAMES. 



391 



Fig 1277. — Enlarged Vertical Section through 
Middle Panel and Lower Portion of Upper Panel. 




Fig. 1276. — Enlarged Vertical Section through 
Head, Transom, and Centre of Upper Panels. 




Fig. 1275. — Enlarged Horizontal Section through Door, taken through Centre of Lower Panel. 



392 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY 



is this line which must be used for work- 
ing from when striking out the door frame 
head. 



Fig. 1279 




Fig. 1278. 



Figs. 1278 and 1279. — Geometrical Construction 
for Setting Out Face Moulds. 

Setting Out for Face Moulds. — Set out the 
half plan of the head of the frame, as shown 
by z y (Fig. 1278) ; projecting up from z draw 



the dotted arc a b, for the outer arris of 
the soffit ; project from y and obtain the 
dotted curve c b, which is the inner arris 
of the soffit ; projecting up from D obtain 
point d' ; from b (Fig. 1279) measure down 
the margin for the head of the frame ; 
then the curve d' to l is the elevation of 
the curve of the outer arris for the head 
of the frame. This line from d' to c is a 
little nearer, and gradually widens from 
the dotted line c b until 1' is reached. Take 
any convenient points on the curve d' 
to L (Fig. 1279), project down from these 
points to the curve in plan, and obtain a 
number of points in plan and elevation 
as shown. From these points in plan draw 
converging lines to the centre x, remember- 
ing these are horizontal generators. Pro- 
jecting out horizontally from d', e', f', g', 
h', k', we obtain points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 
6, as shown on the centre line in elevation. 
Project from 1 to 1', from 2 to 2', and so 
on to point 6 ; then projecting horizontally 
from e', f', g', h', k/, points from 1' to 6' 
are obtained, through which can be drawn 
the curve V to l, which represents the 
inner arris of the head. The outer arris of 
the head, as represented by the curve 7 to 
8, can next be drawn in, as shown. In 
the plan Fig. 1278 draw the line o p through 
v and w, and parallel to this draw M n 
tangent to the curve u l ; the distances 
between these two lines represent the 
thickness of the plank required. Parallel 
to the line m n set up the distance of the 
springing (in this case 4 in.), continuing 
the lines radiating from x from each point 
d to l until the y meet m n (Fig. 1278). 
A number of points are obtained on mn, 
from which ordinates are drawn at right 
angles, as shown at a. Marking off the 
distances on each ordinate from the spring- 
ing line Q R, equal to its corresponding 
ordinate shown in elevation (Fig. 1279), 
the outer face mould can be drawn as 
represented at B. The method for obtaining 
the face mould for the inside is similar, as 
shown at c (Fig. 1278). 

Setting Out for Soffit Mould.— The half 
plan is re-drawn (for clearness) at Fig. 1280. 
At right angles to n x draw x l ; on this 
set up distances 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, l equal to 
the corresponding distances at Fig. 1279. 



. 



DOORS AND DOOR FRAMES. 



393 



Now with compasses set to the distance with compass set to e", f" (a, Fig. 1278), 
d", e" (Fig. 1278), and using m as centre, draw the arc 8', and cut it with the beam 




Fig. 1281.— Plan and Elevation showing Piece of 
Plank with Face Moulds and Bevels Applied. 

describe the arc 7' ; next, with beam com- 
passes set to x 7, cut the arc 7', and then, 

17* 



Fig. 1280.— Setting Out to Obtain Soffit Mould. 

compass set to the distance x 8. Proceeding 
in this manner, the irregular line n n' is 
obtained, which is the development of the 
line m n shown in plan ; then setting off 
distances e' to i/ corresponding to those 
in plan from D to l, points are obtained 
through which the curved lines for the 
soffit mould can be drawn as shown. 

Application of Moulds and Making 
Joints. — The application of the face moulds 
to the plank is shown at Fig. 1281, the solid 
curve lines representing the outer face 
mould applied to the face of plank. Square 
through the plank to the line a b, also to 
the line e d, which is at right angles to 
d p ; then setting a bevel to the angle 
in plan x, Q, M, this can be applied 
to the surface E D, as shown in plan 
at x. The bevel can also be applied to 
the end a b, as indicated by the dotted 



394 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



lines at Y. Then by squaring over, the 
face mould for the inside can be applied 
to the back side of the plank, as indicated 
by* the dotted curves. The next process 
will be to saw to these lines as near as 
possible, after which the joints should be 
made. In making these, a horizontal and 



done, the joints should next be set out for 
handrail screws and dowels ; the boring 
and paring for nuts should next be done, 
the screws and dowels inserted, and the 
joints drawn up tight ; then the work 
should be tested, and any necessary easing 
done. 




Fig. 1283. — Head with Curved Stretcher 
and Soffit Set Out from Mould. 



vertical tangent line, which] ha sjbeen drawn 
on the face mould as shown, should be 
transferred to the face of the plank, as 
indicated at Fig. 1282 ; these lines will be 
found very useful for the application of 
the try square when testing for the face 
edges of the joints as indicated at a. The 
springing joint is also square through the 
plank, but the crown joint must have the 
bevel applied through the thickness, as 
indicated at b. The joints at the tops of 
the posts should now be planed true. This 



Fig. 1282.— Method of Testing Joints with 

Try Square and Bevel Applied to Tangent 

Lines. 

Squaring up the Head. — Separate the 
posts from the head, then true up the soffit 
of the head, of course working exactly to 
the lines made by the aid of the face moulds. 
Prepare a piece of inch stuff the exact 
curve of the plan, bore each end to corre- 
spond with the joints at the springing, and 
fasten on as shown at Fig. 1283. Fasten 
this piece of board to the springing joints 



DOORS AND DOOR FRAMES. 



395 



of the head as shown at Fig. 1283, apply 
the soffit mould to each piece, and mark it 
as shown in that figure. Then the super- 
fluous wood on each side can be worked 
off to these lines, and by testing with a 
straightedge so that it is at right angles 
to the curved stretcher as indicated at 
Fig. 1284, the surfaces may be worked true. 
Moulding. — A few leading points in the 
moulding are : — The patterns for moulding 
can be marked on each end, as it will be 
noted that the rebate at the springing does 



transom is shown at b (Fig. 1276), as is 
also the general construction of the inner 
and outer cornices. 

Setting Out Fanlight.— The method of 
setting out for the fanlight would be similar 
in almost all respects to that shown for the 
setting out for the head. There would be 
the additional advantage of being able 
to fit the pieces in the rebate of the frame. 
It should be noticed that the frame of the 
fanlight is made parallel on plan to allow 
of the insertion of the glass. This is held 



1285.— One-Half of Head Rebated 
Ready for Moulding. 




not radiate, being parallel to the centre line 
in plan, but finishes level at the crown ; this 
is to allow of the fanlight being inserted. 
The usual way of preparing for the moulding 
is to make a series of rebates, as shown 
at Fig. 1285, and then finish with small 
hollows and rounds, completing the mould- 
ing as shown at Fig. 1286. The mouldings 
of the posts are stopped near the bottom, 
so that the plinth finishes against the post ; 
a square part of this is shown in the eleva- 
tion (Fig. 1273). The construction of the 
transom, with its cornices and method 
of finish to stonework, will be understood 
by referring to Figs. 1276 and 1277. The 
transom head a (Figs. 1276 and 1277) has 
twin tenons fitting into corresponding 
mortices in the posts. The intersection 
between the mouldings of the posts and 



Fig. 1286. — Head Moulded and Completed Ready 
for Bolting to Posts. 

in position by beads, which generally would 
be prepared out of the solid stuff. 

Doors. — The curvature of the doors in 
plan being an arc of only about 2-in. rise, 
all the panels and rails would be prepared 
out of the solid. The sections of these are 
given in Figs. 1274 to 1277. All the hori- 
zontal mouldings are curved and worked 
out of the solid ; the fixing of all these is 
to be secret, and the method here adopted 
for this is a good one. The bolection 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 




Pig. 1287.— Conventional View showing the General Construction of Transom and Cornice, 
and the Intersection with Stonework and Door Post. 



Fig. 1289. 





Fig. 1288. 
Figs. 1288 and 1289.— Methods of Secret Fixing of Mouldings. 



DOORS AND DOOR FRAMES. 



397 



mouldings on the outside are se- 
cured by screwing from the inside 
of the panels as illustrated at a 
(Figs. 1288 and 1289). To obviate 
any chance of the panels splitting 
should shrinkage occur, the holes 
in the panels are made by boring 
and countersinking two holes the 
size of the shank of the screws, and 
cutting out the material between ; 
thus slots are formed as shown at a 
(Figs. 1288 and 1289). These slots 
are made longways across the grain. 
The inside mouldings are inserted 
afterwards ; and by preparing them 
with a movable member as shown 
at c (Figs. 1288 and 1289), these 
can be secured by screws to the 
edges of the stiles and rail, as shown, 
and then the member c is glued and 
inserted in the grooves made to re- 
ceive it. 

Apron. — The carved apron under 
the moulding of the top panel is 
worked on the solid of the rail as 
indicated in the section at a (Fig. 
1277) ; although a little more trouble, 
this method is superior to planting 
on. The small carved scroll pedi- 
ments, which form a finish to the top 
panels, are drawn in section at a 
(Fig. 1276), where they are shown 
tongued to the top rail ; being ellip- 
tical on the inside allows of this 
fixing being hidden by the mould- 
ing b (Fig. 1276). The inner reveals 
for these frames are very often 
built parallel, and sometimes a 
toothing is left ; the space being built 
up close, or near to, and after the 
frame has been placed in position ; 
wood blocks or other means of fixing 
being built in the wall as required. 
Although the foregoing description is 
necessarily brief, the accompanying 
illustrations are sufficiently clear to 
show all details, the more ordinary 
construction being similar to previous 
examples. 

Circle = on = Circle Work. 

Figs. 1290 to 1300 illustrate an 
example very similar to the last ; 




Fig. 1290. 



Fig. 1291. 



Fig. 1290. 



Fig. 1291. 



-Elevation of Circle-on- Circle Door and 
Frame. 

Section of Circle-on-Circle Door Frame. 




Fig. 1292.— Plan of Circle-on-Circle Door Frame. 



398 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



as a rule, it [would be found only in 
buildings of rather ordinary class. It 
will be seen by the plan that the jambs 
of the I parts do not radiate ; the inner 
arris of the soffit of the arch is a semi- 
circle, and thus, on account of the radius 
of the plan not being great and the curva- 
tures being very flat, the outer arris of 
the head of the frame can also be taken 
as a semicircle. A simple method will 
now be shown and explained of setting out 
and constructing the head with one mould 
only. 

Circle-on-Circle Door Frame constructed 
with One Mould. — Fig. 1290 shows the front 
elevation of a 4-in. by 3-in. semicircular- 
headed solid door frame, with single 
rebated parallel jambs, oak sill, double 
rebated and weathered transom, a 2-in. 
glazed fixed fanlight, and a 2-in. four-panel 
door, moulded outside, with the bottom 
panels bead flush inside. Fig. 1291 shows 
a central vertical section, and Fig. 1292 the 
plan. In beginning a job of this description, 
an elevation of the head down to the transom 
should be get out full size on a rod, and im- 
mediately beneath it, and projected from it, 
the plan should also be set out. To get the 
thickness of the stuff required out of which 
to get the head, assuming that the head will 
be made in two pieces jointed at the centre, 
draw lines from the centre to the outside 
edges of the jambs, on the inside of the plan 
(gee a' c d, Fig. 1292) ; also draw two lines 
parallel with these, touching the curve on 
the outside, as 1' e g, which gives the 
thickness of the piece of stuff required. To 
find its length, either go through the same 
process in the elevation, drawing the ends 
square with the tangent lines, or preferably, 
make the mould fg,jh squared out from 
the lines just drawn, using ordinates to obtain 
this, as in the previous example ; or it 
can be struck out with a trammel, being a 
quarter of an ellipse. Cut out two pieces 
to this mould square from the face, and make 
the joints at the centre and springing the 
same as the end of the mould. For the 
horizontal cut, set a bevel as shown on the 
plan, and apply it on the edge of the stuff from 
the face. A handrail screw and a couple of 
cross-tongues may be used for the head 
joint, the nuts, of course, going in from the 



top. When the joint is made, try the head, 
which will now have the appearance of Fig. 
1293, without the lines, over its plan ; its 
back and front faces should stand perpendicu- 
larly over the lines 1'eg and a' c d, and its 
ends completely cover the sections of the 
jambs (Fig. 1292). The head has now to 
be worked to the plan curve. 

Ascertaining Plan Curves. — Divide the 
soffit of the head of the frame into 
any number of equal parts between the 
springing lines (as in Fig. 1290), number- 
ing them on each side, from springing to 
centre ; the greater the number of parts, 
the more accurate will be the curve. From 
these points drop perpendiculars into the 
plan, cutting the tangents or block lines of 
the head (see Fig. 1292), and numbering the 
lines to correspond with the elevation. The 
utility of projecting the plan from the eleva- 
tion will now be apparent. Next, place the 
head over its plan, as shown in Fig. 1293, 
keeping its centre perpendicularly over the 
centre line in the plan ; with the aid of a set 
square, transfer to its face the lines 1, 2, 3, 4, 
etc., from the like numbered points in the 
plan. Lines must now be drawn on the 
top and bottom edges from these, parallel 
with the joint ; and to do this, take the joint 
bevel, and apply it to each line in succession, 
holding the stock level, and the inside edge 
of the blade to the point from which the 
line has to be drawn. The head now having 
the lines drawn as in plan and elevation 
must have the points marked where the 
curve intersects these lines. Set a pair of 
compasses or spring dividers to the widths 
r a and r a' (Fig. 1292), and transfer them 
to the head at the springing joint on each 
side. Do the same throughout the series b', 
transferring each width to its proper position 
on the top and bottom edges of the head, 
until all the points have been pricked off, 
as shown in the enlarged sketch of one side 
of the head (Fig. 1294). Now draw the curve 
through the points thus obtained, either by 
freehand or by the aid of a thin strip bent 
round the head and kept to the points. The 
two pieces can be worked off to the lines, 
keeping them straight across the face in 
the direction of the ordinates. They 
should be tested by moving a set square, 
held perfectly upright, carefully around 



DOORS AND DOOR FRAMES. 



399 



the curve, and seeing whether the face fits 
close up to it. 

Lining Out Elevation Curve. — The plan 

I curves having been worked, the next thing 

i is to line out the elevation curve. This is 

| done in the manner shown by Fig. 1295. 

'■ Cut in tightly between the ends of the head 

I a stretcher as shown, and screwing it to the 

! joints. Lay the head on the bench top, 

j packing it up level ; then fix a small block 

J in the middle of the stretcher, of such a 

height as to bring its top level with the 

highest point on the head. Draw a line to 

represent the springing line, and upon this 

mark the exact centre ; this will be the point 



groove made in the end, thus drawing 
the curve as true as if it had been struck on 
a flat surface ; the operation should be re- 
peated on the other side of the head, first 
taking the stretcher off and turning it over. 
Moulding and Rebating Frame Head. — 
The soffit having been worked off to the 
lines, the head is ready for moulding and 





Fig. 1293. — Sketch of Head of Circle-on-Circle Door Frame 
before Shaping. 



Fig. 1294.— Back of Head 
of Circle-on-Circle Door 
Frame, showing Method 
of Obtaining Points in 
the Curve. 



from which to describe the semicircles of 
the elevation with the falling compass now 
to be described. Get a piece of light deal 
about 2 ft. long, f in. thick, and 2 in. wide 
at one end, tapering to \ in. at the other, 
and in it cut a slight hollow or V as 
a bed for the pencil. Mark on the edge 
the distances of the inside and outside of 
the jamb, and bore holes with a bradawl 
through these points, square from the 
bottom edge ; these will give the radii 
for soffit and outside lines of the head. 
Fix the compass as shown in Fig. 1295, and, 
beginning at the crown, move it steadily 
round, letting the pencil slip down the 



rebating, as, unless the frame is going into 
a stone reveal, it will be unnecessary to do 
anything to the back of the head. The 
rebate should be worked first, a quirk router 
being used to sink a small groove, \ in. deep, 
and 2 in. from the inside face ; run a cut- 
ting gauge, with a rounded fence, set to 
\ in., round the inside face, and remove 



the core with a bent chisel. Finish up the 
rebate with a round-soled thumb rebate 
plane, and work a f -in. bead on the rebated 
edge and a -J-in. bead on the outside. 

Circle-on-Circle Door Frame : Completion. 
— The head can now be glued up at the centre 
joint and cleaned off, the stretcher screwed 



400 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



on and this part set aside whilst the remain- 
ing portions of the frame are being worked. 
The transom and the oak sill will be got out 
to the plan moulds and worked to their 
respective sections after having been mor- 
tised and tenoned. In setting out the sill 




Fig. 1295. — Sketch of Head of Circle-on-Circle Door 

Frame Shaped to Plan Curve, with Falling 

Compass Describing Elevation Curve. 

and transom to width, work to the sight 
lines of the head, making the shoulders to 
the quirks of the beads on it. Get out the 
jambs from stuff about 8 in. longer than 
the length between the springing and under 
side of the sill, to allow for the key tenon 
at the springing, and true up these to the 




W"--"\ 










Fig. 1297 


_l 




\ 




<■ 





Figs. 1296 and 1297.— Enlarged Details of Joint at 
Springing of Circle-on-Circle Door Frame. 

section shown at Fig. 1298. Set these out 
from the section, or height rod, for mor- 
tising, as shown at Figs. 1296 and 1297, 
also for shoulders for key tenon as 
shown. The thickness of the stem 
should be just under one-third of the 



width of the jamb, and it will eventually be 
cut f in. back from the face edge in order to 
clear the rebate in the head ; reference to 
Fig. 1298 will make this plain. The end of 




Fig. 1298.— Enlarged Section of Jamb for Circle- 
on-Circle Door Frame. 

the key head should be tapered, to avoid 
weakening the head more than can be 
avoided, and the sides of the keys should be 
cut to the same bevel as the jambs are worked 
to. The shoulders should also be cross- 
tongued and stopped inside, as shown.^As 




Fig. 1299.— Enlarged Section of Transom for 
Circle-on-Circle Door Frame. 

mentioned, double tenons are used for" the 
transom ; this is to avoid "cutting the fibres 
at the root of the key, and the insides of the 
mortices should come in line with the outside 
lines of the key, and in thickness they should 
be T V in. under the half of the remaining 
wood. Fig. 1299 is a section of the transom ; 




Fig. 1300. 



-Enlarged Section of Head at Crown of 
Circle-on-Circle Door Frame. 



and Fig. 1300 a section of head at crown. 
Having set the sight lines of the jambs on the 
face edge of the transom, measure out and : 
pencil lines representing the thickness of 



DOORS AND DOOR FRAMES. 



401 



jamb, prick the mortice gauge upon these two 
lines — namely, the inside and outside of the 
jamb — and join the points by a straight line ; 
this will give the sides of tenons. Next 
gauge the jambs for the rebate and beads. 
These will be worked after the mortising 
and tenoning are completed. In wedging 
up, paint the tenons of the transom and 
enter them ; glue the keys on the jambs, 
cramp up, and drive the sill on dry to keep 
all square ; wedge up the head, then the 
transom, cramp the sill from the projecting 
ends of the keys, and wedge up, painting 
both wedges and tenons. If the work is 
true and out of winding, a straightedge 
applied to the sill and transom inside will 
touch the face of the head all round, and a 
set-square held to it will fit the soffit in 
any part. The fanlight will be managed in 
the same way as the head of the frame, in 
respect of the plan curve ; finish the fitting 
by scribing it into the rebate, one piece at 
a time, fitting the back edge in the same 
way, then lining round the soffit with a slip 
of wood the width of the margin. Joint up 
at the centre, and work the rebates and 
moulding, set the bottom rail out with 
square shoulders in both directions, and, 
when working the head, make the portion 
below the springing square from it. This 
will be mortised, the tenon being on the 
bottom rail ; the joint in the head will 
have to be glued up at the same time as 
the rail is wedged. 

Circle = on = Circle Swing Doors with 
Fanlight. 

Figs. 1301 and 1302 show a pair of 2J-in. 
circle-on-circle swing doors in a solid frame, 
with fanlight above, with a chord rise of 
15 in. Details are given in the sectional 
views (Figs. 1303 to 1307). The doors are half 
glass, with diminished stiles and marginal 
bars, the upper part divided into sections 
with concentric radiating and inverted bars, 
the spandril corners filled in with sunk and 
moulded panels ; apron lining on middle 
rail ; ovolo moulded and hollowed frame, 
with moulded and denticulated cornice. 
The fanlight is fixed in the centre of the 
frame, with concentric and radiating bars. 
The head of the frame, and the fanlight, must 
be prepared on a cylinder. These could 




Fig. 1301. 



-Elevation of Circle-on-Circle Swing 
Doors with Fanlight. 




Fig. 



1302. — Sectional Plan of Circle-on-Circle 
Swing Doors with Fanlight. 



40: 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 




Fig. 1303. 



Fig. 1304. 



Fig. 1305. 



Fig. 1303. — Enlarged Section of Circle-on- Circle Swing Doors through Transom and Fanlight on 

Line A A (Fig. 1301). Fig. 1304. — Enlarged Section through Upper Part of Circle-on-Circle 

Swing Doors on Line B B (Fig. 1301). Fig. 1305. — Enlarged Section through Lower Part of 

Circle-on-Circle Swing Doors on Line C C (Fig. 1301). 




Fig. 1306. — Enlarged Section through Stiles of Circle-on-Circle Swing Doors on Line D D 

(Fig. 1301). 



DOORS AND DOOR FRAMES. 



be got out by the aid of lines, but where a 
definite curve is required the former method 
is more accurate and reliable. The material 
will be cut as shown by the dotted lines, 
d e f G (Fig. 1308) showing the thickness, 
and a c h i (Fig. 1309) the length. When 



as the upper part of the door, should be 
fitted on the cylinder. Joint screws should 
be used where practicable. 

The jambs of the door frame are cut from 
solid material, as is also the head, but the 
transom is built up, as seen in Fig. 1303, 




Fig. 1307. 



-Enlarged Section through Bottom Panel of Circle-on-Circle Swing Doors on Line E E 

(Fig. 1301). 



fitted to the cylinder, the proper curve will 
be obtained by using a trammel with a 
rising and falling slide at the striking point, 



Fig. 1309 



H<. 




Figs. 1308 and 1309.— Method of Setting Out 
Fanlight of Circle-on-Circle Swing Doors. 

similar to Fig. 1295, the head, etc., being 
reversed. The bars in the fanlight, as well 



with a deal core and hardwood facings. 
The narrow frieze being prepared from j-in. 
material, it may be bent round the sweep. 
The neck mouldings are prepared from the 
solid cut to the sweep required. The cornices 
may be prepared as seen in section, or in 
separate pieces, and built up to the required 
size. Veneers are not used in this class of 
work. The door stiles are cut from solid, 
straight-grained material, and, needless to 
mention, bone dry. The rails being rather 
a quick sweep, they are framed to the stiles 
with stub tenons and haunchings, the joints 
being brought tight up by means of J-in. 
billiard bolts inserted from the back edge of 
the stiles. The nuts are let into the rails 
from each edge into a square mortice to fit 
the nut, and when in exact position the 
holes are plugged to prevent their moving. 
By this method the shoulders may be fitted 
perfectly with little trouble, and the trouble 
caused by broken, short-grained tenons is 
avoided. The circular holes in the edge of 
the stiles made by the centre-bit, and in 
which the heads of the bolts are embedded, 
are rilled up with pieces of wood the same 
grain and colour as the stile, care being 
taken that the grains follow. 



WINDOW SASHES AND CASEMENTS. 



Sash Frame. 

For the present purpose it will be sup- 
posed that a window frame and sashes are 
to be made entirely by hand, no machine- 
prepared material being used. The sash 
frame is shown by Figs. 1310 to 1312, and 
it will also be assumed that a rod has 
been set out, as explained and illustrated 
on p. 294, containing the two sections 
(Figs. 1310 and 1312). It will be noticed 
that the pulley stiles are drawn in line with 
the brick reveal, and the head in line with 
the head of the brick opening. When thus 
arranged, the size of the opening in the brick- 
work affords the necessary data for setting 
out the size of the frame. 

Materials. — The first thing to do is to take 
off the quantities of the stuff required for 
the job : the lengths of the upright pieces 
will be taken from the vertical section, and 
their widths and thicknesses from the 
plan ; and the lengths of the horizontal 
pieces will be found on the plan, and their 
widths and thicknesses on the vertical sec- 
tion. Cut the stuff for the inside and out- 
side linings 1| in. longer than as shown on the 
height rod, so that when nailed on they will 
run over each end. Linings are usually ar- 
ranged so that two of equal width may be 
cut out of a 9-in. board ; the head linings 
should be cut \ in. longer than the clear 
length between the pulley stiles ; and the 
head and sill should be each 2 in. or 3 in. 
longer than the width of the frame over all. 
When fitting up, the horns should be left on, 
as they are sometimes handy for fixing, and, 
if not required, they can always be cut off. 
The length of the pulley stiles should be equal 
to the distance from the top of the head to 
the weathering of the sill ; and the width 
should be f in. more than the clear width 
between the linings, which allows for two 



|-in. tongues and \ in. for shooting. The 
length of the back lining should be taken 
from the under side of the head to the weath- 
ering of the sill, the width being \ in. more 
than from the inside of one lining to the out- 
side of the other. The parting slips should 
be of similar length, and If in. by J in. in 
section ; the parting beads, also of the 
same length, should be prepared out of J-in. 
by 1-in. stuff ; the two upright inside or 
guard beads, of the same length, should be 
\\ in. wide, and prepared out of f-in. by 
1 J -in. stuff. The head and sill beads should 
be a little longer than the clear width 
between the pulley stiles, the sill bead to 
be \ in. wider to allow for bevelling. For 
the sashes, cut all the stuff the exact width, 
so that no labour is lost in shooting off 
superfluous material. Sashes require at 
least T V in. play, and if they are made to 
exact width, there will be still sufficient 
material to allow for fitting. The stiles 
should be \\ in. longer than required, and 
the rails J in. Cut the bottom rail f in. 
wider than the finished size, to allow for 
the splay. A careful workman will form 
the splay to fit the sill before gluing up the 
sash. Do not overlook the brackets or 
horns on the stiles of the upper sash. 

Preparing the Stuff. — The side and head 
linings should be faced on their best sides, 
shot on their best edges, and gauged to 
thickness for \\ in. from their face edges ; 
the remaining portion of the back sides, 
being hidden in the casing, need not be 
planed, except when the lining is consider- 
ably thicker than required, then it must be 
either thicknessed the whole breadth or 
rebated out to the distance of the back of 
the pulley stile, otherwise the shoulder 
formed on the edge of the stile by the 
rebate for tongue would require to be 
splayed, and much time would be lost in 

404 



WINDOW SASHES AND CASEMENTS. 



405 



Fig. 1310. — Vertical Section 
of Sash Frame. 



/ 



k 



Fig. 1311.— Outside Elevation. 




3 

Fig. 1312.— Horizontal Section. 



406 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



fitting. Put the best stuff on the inside of 
the frame, as nearly all the outside lining 
is hidden in the brickwork. The head and 
the pulley stiles should be planed straight 
and out of winding, and be gauged to width, 
including the tongues ; the inside edges 
should be gauged to thickness, the back sides 
being left rough. The oak sill is usually 
supplied of rough wedge-shape section, as 
shown at Fig. 1317, which facilitates work- 
ing and economises material. Commence 
by taking the bottom or the flat side out of 
winding. Square the widest edge from this, 
and gauge it to 3 in. thick, as indicated at 



round or a proper throating plane. Plough 
in the two grooves for the window nosing ! 
and water bar, the former § in. by | in., 




Fig. 1313.— Enlarged Detail at Sill. 

A, Fig. 1318. Gauge the width J in. more 
than the thickness of the frame over all, in 
order to allow for subsequent shrinkage. 
Most shops keep standard patterns of sills, 
which should be used for marking the ends 
indicated at Fig. 1317 ; but if one of these 
is not to hand, carefully mark the section 
shown on the rod upon each end, gauging 
and ploughing from the inside to the neces- 
sary widths and depths. The best method 
will be to first work off the top flat square 
with the face (Fig. 1318), then to set the 
plough to the inside of the parting bead 
(see Fig. 1319), and run a J-in. groove to 
the depth of sinking ; gauge the outside 
edge If in., and work off the weathering 
with a badger plane. Next gauge the width 
of the flat, set the bevel to the sash 
slope, and work off to the bevel ; then 
work the throating t with either a No. 1 




Fig. 1314.— Housings at Head and Sill. 

the latter J in. by J in., completing the 
planing up as shown at Fig. 1320. The 
position of the water bar being taken from 
the stone sill, it often comes in line with 



WINDOW SASHES AND CASEMENTS. 



407 



the outer edge of the pulley stile (see Fig. 
1310). The back linings and parting slips 
need not be wrought. The parting beads 
should be stuck on the edge of a so-called 




Fig. 1315.— Enlarged Detail through Pulley 
Stile, etc. 

j |-in. board with a T V in - bead plane, gauged 
; to | in. wide, and mulleted to f- in. tight. 
, The guard beads can be worked on the face 
i of a lj-in. board with a -f-in. bead plane as 
shown at Fig. 1321, then sawn just outside 




Fig. 1316.— Enlarged Detail at Head. 

the quirk and planed to it, or on the edge of 
a f-in. board, as indicated at Fig. 1322, and 
then cut off IJin. wide, and planed to the 
quirk for thickness. 

Setting Out the Frame. — Lay the sill on 
the width rod with the face upwards and 
the face edge inwards. The sill is shown pro- 



jected above the rod at Fig. 1323. Square 
up the inside lines or faces of the pulley 




Fig. 1317. — Rough Sill with Template Applied. 




Fig. 1318.— Sill with Surfaces ABC 
and D Worked. 




Fig. 1319.— Sill Ploughed and Set Out for 
Weatherings. 




Fig. 1320.— Sill Worked, and Set Out for Housings 
and Linings. 




Fig. 1321. 



-Preparing Guard Bead on Flat of 
Board. 




Fig. 1322. 



-Preparing Guard Bead on Edge of 
Board. 



408 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



stiles, and square the lines over the top and 
bottom, indicated at a, and b in Fig. 1323. 
To facilitate marking on the weathered side, 
make a block square or template of a 
piece of stuff. To do this, plane up a 



across the top of sill by placing the tem- 
plate against the shoulder lines a and e and 
scribing. Gauge up from the bottom of the 
sill for the depth of the sinking so that it 
will come J in. below the lowest point of the 




Fig. 1323.— Sill Set Out from Rod, and ApplicatioiTof Template'A. 




Fig. 1324.— Setting Out Head from Sill. 




Fig. 1325. — End of Head Mortised for Parting Slip and Pared to receive Linings. 



piece of deal 10 in. long, 5 in. wide, and thick 
enough to plane up, tapering from 2 in. to 
1J in. in the breadth of the sill as indicated 
at c and d in Fig. 1323. Next rebate one 
side to fit the section of the sill as shown at 
Fig. 1321. With this the thickness of the 
pulley stiles plus the wedging can be marked 



weathering — see the dotted line between e 
and g (Fig. 1323). Gauge the sinkings 
for the linings at each end, as shown at H 
and k (Fig. 1323), the outside one being set 
equal to the width a to B. In working, 
chase the cross sinking first, then rip out 
the lining sinkings as shown by Fig. 1314. 



WINDOW SASHES AND CASEMENTS. 



Setting Out Sash Frame Head.— To set out 

the head, place the sill on it and mark the 

' face lines of the pulley stile, as a and b 

(Fig. 1324) ; square over the face, and gauge 

for the housing f in., which may be made 



tongues should be cut off at each end, as 
shown at Figs. 1324 and 1325, for the linings 
to bed. * 

Setting Out Pulley Stiles.— Set out the 
pulley stiles from the height rod, and mark 



Fig. 1327.— First Stage 
of Setting Out Pulley 
Stiles from Rod. 




Fig. 1328. 



Second Stage of Setting Out Pulley 
Stiles. 




Fig. 1329.— Third Stage of Setting Out Pulley 
Stiles. 




Fig. 1330.— Pulley Stile Rebated, Mortised 
Pulleys, and Tongued. 



for 



to receive a J-in. tongue as shown at a, or 
the full thickness of the pulley stile as at b 
(Fig. 1324). Mark off a J-in. by lf-in. 
mortice at each end, J in. behind each pulley 
stile in the centre of the width for the parting 
slip. Gauge a f -in. tongue on each edge, the 
inside one on the back and the outside one 
on the face, as shown at Fig. 1324. These 

18 



off the sight lines of the head and sill. 
Mark off the lengths for the housings at each 
end, also for pockets and pulleys, as shown, 
run down gauge lines for the tongues, and 
plough the groove for the parting bead. 
The bead is not in the middle ; its position 
will be found on the rod (see Fig. 1310). 
Next finish cutting out the pocket, which is 



410 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



usually about 6 in. up from the sill and 
about 12 in. long on the inside portion of 
the stile ; the length will be determined 
by the height of the sashes. Square these 




Fig. 1331. 



Back of Pulley Stile Bored and Sawn for 
Pocket. 



lines over from the inside edge to the 
ploughed groove e f (Fig. 1328). Mark 
two other lines J in. within them for the 
rebates, and square these over on the 
back side. In setting out the mortices for 
the pulleys, note must be taken of the par- 
ticular kind in use. The top of the plate is 
usually kept 1 J in. down from the head, and 
the mortice is made to fit the case tightly. 
To ascertain the position, mark the thick- 
ness of the sash on each side of the parting 
groove, and gauge in the centre ; pair the 
pulley stiles, and strike the lines over and 
gauge as indicated at Figs. 1328 and 1329. 
The only setting out needed for the linings 
is the gauging for the grooves. The posi- 
tion of the pulley stiles, head, and back lining 
will be found on the width rod (see also Figs. 



shown by Fig. 1311, 5 in. down and f in. on, 
but leave the bottom end until fitting on. 
Working the Stuff. — The method of work- 
ing the sill has already been explained ; it 
should always be prepared before 
setting out the frame. In preparing 
the head, the housing for the stiles 
should be worked first, then mortices 
cut for the parting slips, and the 
edges rebated for the tongues. In 
preparing the pulley stiles, square 
the ends, mortise for the pulleys (see 
Fig. 1330), and plough the parting 
groove \ in. by f in. In cutting the 
pocket, if it is desired to utilise 
removed material for the pocket 
piece, make a fine cut with a dovetail saw 
halfway through at the lower end, and a 
similar one at the top end, but undercut as 
shown at a in Fig. 1331, and in Fig. 1332. 
Turn over the stile and bore a f-in. hole at 
each end exactly where the rebate fines cross 
the parting groove. Stop the hole when it 
reaches the groove, and run the saw down 
on the lines halfway through, as shown by 
Fig. 1331. With a pad-saw cut a fine fine 
halfway down the parting groove as near 
the outside as possible (see b, Fig. 1331), 



the 



i 
A 


[7 


|x 


1 

! 
i 


■ 


i 


i 




-V 


11 


lU 




Fig. 1332. -Front and Edge Views of Pocket Fig. 1333.— End of Pulley Stile Wedged and Nailed 
Piece in Sill. 

1315 and 1316). The back fining is ploughed but do not knock the piece out. Form 

into the inside lining and nailed on the edge rebates as on the head, and fit in the pulleys, 

of the outside lining. The top ends of the Before screwing these in, take a shaving 

outside linings may be cut and mitered as with a smoothing plane off the face of the 



WINDOW SASHES AND CASEMENTS 



411 



: stile. In preparing the linings, plough 

the grooves f in. by § in., as shown by the 

1 illustration, cut and mitre the outside linings 



in its proper housing, and wedge up. See 
that it beds firmly on the bottom of the 
housing, and drive a couple of 2J-in. nails 




1334.— Skeleton Frame on Bench 
ready for Fixing Linings. 



on the skew, through the wedge and the 
stile, as illustrated at Fig. 1333. Fix the 
opposite stile in the same way, making 
sure that it is out of winding by sighting 
it with the one already fixed. Stand the 
frame on the floor, place the head in position, 
and nail it on with three or four 2^-in. 
nails at each end ; the skeleton should then 
be laid on to pieces of quartering out of wind- 
ing and temporarily fixed to the bench, 



Fig. 1335. — General View of Top Corner of Frame, 
showing Method of Fixing Head Linings. 

at top, and smooth the bottom ends for 
12 in. up. 

Fitting Together Sash Frame. — Place the 
sill on the bench ; put one of the pulley stiles 





Method of Mitering Guard Beads. 



the inside being uppermost. Fix a piece 
of quartering or arras-rail on the bench end, 
and twist a couple of screws or gimlets 
through a strip nailed to the quartering into 



412 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



Fig. 1341.— Stiles of Top Sash. First 
Setting Out from Rod. 



Fig. 1338.— First Setting 
Out from Rod for 
Stiles of Bottom 
Sash. 




Fig. 1337.— Height Rod 
for Sashes. 



Fig. 1339.— Bottom Stiles 
completely Set Out 




Fig. 1340.— Bottom Stile 

completed Ready to Receive 

Rails. 



Fig. 1342.— Top Stiles 
completely Set Out. 




Fig. 1343.— Top Stile com- 
pletely Worked to Receive 
Rails. 



WINDOW SASHES AND CASEMENTS. 



413 



the bottom of the sill as illustrated at Fig. 
1334. Test the frame for squareness with 
a rod, pushing the skeleton in either direc- 
tion until the lengths between the opposite 
corners are equal, then lightly drive a 



lj-in. nails. Cut one end of the head lining 
square, put it in place, mark the length, 
and square off slightly full ; this will make 
a good shoulder. Keep the linings flush on 
the back side, and drive a nail through the 



Fig. 1347.— Top 

Rail completely 

Set Out. 



Fig. 1346.— 
Bottom Rail com- 
pletely Set Out. 




Fig. 1345.— First 
Setting Out of 
Rails from Rod. 



couple of nails through the back^of the head 
into the quartering. Cut off the projecting 
ends of the wedges, the tongues on the head 
beyond the stiles, and the tongue off the side 
of the pocket piece. Give the lower end of the 
pocket piece a smart blow with the hammer 
from the back ; this will break it at the 
rebate. Next nail on the side linings with 



1344.— Width Rod for Sashes. 



back edge as shown by Fig. 1335. Fit in the 
beads tightly ; the head and sill beads should 
not be mitered right through, but stopped 
halfway, and rebated, as shown by Fig. 
1336 ; drive one brad in each to keep 
it in place. Cut the linings off flush with 
the sill, and smooth up. Turn the frame 
over and test whether it is square — if 



414 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 




Fig. 1348.— End of Top Rail, showing Moulded 
Edge and Scribing. 




Fig. 1349. — End of Top Rail, showing Haunching. 




Fig. 1350.— End of Meeting Rail of Bottom Sash 
l Set Out. 




Fig. 1351.— Tenon Sawn and Ploughed. 




Fig. 1352.— End of Bottom Meeting Rail com- 
pleted (scribed at A) for fitting into Stile. 




Fig. 1353.— Top Sash Meeting Rail Set Out. 




not, make it so ; then put in the parting 
slips, keeping them 1 in. short of the sill, 
and drive a nail through the top end, as 
shown at r (Fig. 1316) ; put on the outside 
linings, trimming off the sill to the level of 
the pulley stiles if necessary ; fix the back 
lining with 1-in. nails ; nail the head linings 
as before ; cut off the ends and smooth up. 
Only f in. of the frame is seen on this side, 
so not much trouble need be taken, except 
with the sill. Stand the frame up and glue 
in the angle blocks on the head about 3 in. 
apart, care being taken to have one over 
each shoulder (see Fig. 1335). The frame 
is now finished, and may be stood aside 
while the sashes are being prepared. 




Fig. 1354.— Tenons Cut and Rebated. 



Fig. 1355. — Portion of Rail completed. 

Setting Out Sashes. — Lay a stile on the rod 
as shown in Fig. 1337, in which the frame 
has been omitted for clearness, and square 
up the sight lines, pair the stiles, and set out 
mortices for top and bottom rails half the 
width of the stuff, or a little more (see a and 
D, Figs. 1338 and 1341), and the joints 
for the meeting rails full width, which will 
be dovetails instead of mortices (see B and c, 
Figs. 1338 and 1341). Square the line of 
the bracket over on the top stiles, and 
mark two lines on the back edge of the 
stiles 10 in. and 14 in. respectively from the 
top ends for the line groove and the knot 
hole. The remainder of the setting out and 
completion of the stiles will be under- 
stood from Figs. 1338 and 1343. Set out 
the bars from the stiles, allowing extra at 
each end for the sticking ; in the case 
of lj-in. sashes this would be y~- in. Next 
set out the rails from the width rod (Fig. 
1344), but do not overlook the sticking ; 
place the four together as shown at Fig. 
1345 ; square the sight lines, and continue 
these over the back edges of the top and 
bottom rails for the haunching, as shown at 
Figs. 1346 and 1347. Set a mortice gauge 
to the size of the square shown, which, 
together with the sticking, will be | in. 



WINDOW SASHES AND CASEMENTS. 



415 



Allow for the moulding J in. on, and run the 
gauge down all the face edges, with the 
exception of the top meeting rail ; also set 
a gauge to -yw in., and run it on both faces of 
all the stuff. The entire operation, from 
first marking off the rod to the completion 
of the top and bottom rails, is shown 
by" Figs. 1345 to 1349. Mark a dovetail 
as shown by Fig. 1340 on the upper ends 
of the bottom stiles, and draw or trace the 
profile of the brackets on the top stiles. 

Working the Sashes. — Mortise the stiles 
and tenon the rails, mortising the backs of 
these for the haunching (see Figs. 1348 and 
1349) ; also cut the dovetails in the meeting 
rails (Figs. 1351 and 1354) ; then work 
the rebates with a sash fillister, and stick 
the moulding a (Figs. 1349 and 1352). 
Cut the shoulders of the tenons, and scribe 
them to the section of the moulding. Cut 
away the moulding on the stiles at 
the mortices to within | in. of the sight 
line, but let the " square " remain on to 
form the haunching, as shown by Figs. 1340 
and 1343. When scribing the bars, remem- 
ber that the end of the top one which fits in 
the meeting rail i.3 to be left square, as there 
is no moulding on this rail as shown at Fig. 
1356. The moulded horns or brackets at 
the ends of the stiles should be worked, 
cramping together one or more pairs of 
stiles, with a piece of waste wood against 
the last stile to prevent the edge from 
breaking (see Fig. 1357). The meeting rails 
should be gauged to T %- in. wider than 
the thickness of the stiles, and bevelled in 
pairs as shown by Figs. 1351, 1352, and 1355. 



The bevelled sides are not to be cut at the 
shoulder, but must run over the faces of the 
stiles, and, for preference, are sunk in J-in. 
dovetailing as indicated at Figs. 1340 
and 1343. Plough a J-in. groove in 
the back of each stile, down to the 10-in. 
line for the cord. Bore a f-in. hole at the 





Fig. 1356. 



Fig. 1356. — Joints of Bar 

with Top Rail 'and 

Meeting Rail. 



Fig. 1357 



Fig. 1357.— Method of 

Moulding Horns of Stiles 

to Top Sash. 



410 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



14-in. line, f in. deep, and meet it with 
a f-in. hole bored down from the bottom of 
the plough groove. Fit the rails into the 
stiles, and the bars into the rails. Take a 
shaving off all the inside edges and the 
meeting ends of the stiles, also the bottom 
side of the top meeting rail, and knock the 
sashes together preparatory to gluing them 
up. Lay a pair of sash cramps on the bench 
so^that they will pinch either on or outside 



sashes, cut off .the horns, shoot the top rails 
straight, and fit the sashes into the frame. 
Take the side beads out, also the parting 
beads, cut a rod T V in. shorter than the clear 
length between the pulley stiles, and try 
it on the top sash ; if it is too wide, reduce 
the stiles equally to the width of the rod. 
Cut the overhanging part of the meeting 
rail back for f in. flush with the stile, try the 
sash in the frame, and put in the parting 




t£ 



Fig. 1359.— Joint of Outside 
Lining with Sill". 



Fig. 1358.— Joint between 
Bottom Rail and Stile. 






Fig. 1360. — Joint of Top Meeting 
Rail and Stile. 





Fig. 1361.— Dovetail Joint of 

Bottom Meeting Rail and 

Stile. 



Fig. 1362.— Enlarged 

Section through Meeting 

Rails. 



Fig. 1363.— Face of Template. 



the rails ; if inside they will bend the stiles. 
An alternative way is to lay two pieces of 
quartering out of winding on the bench, lay 
the sashes on these, and use cramps above. 
Knock the stiles off, glue the tenons of the 
bars, knock the rails on, place the ends 
of the tenons into the mortices, glue both 
mortices and tenons, and cramp and wedge 
up, a rod having been previously used diagon- 
ally in order to make sure that the work is 
quite square. Put a screw through the 
bottom meeting rail from the back side, and 
wedge the bars straight. If they are then 
crooked, drive the wedge most on the hollow 
side. When the glue is dry, clean up the 



beads. The sash should run freely, with 
about -3V in. clearance all round ; fix it in 
place with a prop. Shoot the bottom sash 
to the width of the rod, and try it in the 
frame. Set a pair of compasses to the width 
between the top sides of the meeting rails 
(or a shaving less, in order to allow for 
shrinkage in the bottom rail), and scribe 
along the outside of the bottom rail from 
the bevel on the sill. Mark the bevel from 
this line on the stiles, and work the sash 
accordingly. Run a weather groove along 
the bottom edge, and bevel off the face to 
fit the bead. Put the sash in place, and 
replace the guard beads. Figs. 1358 to 1362 



WINDOW SASHES AND CASEMENTS. 



417 



show details of the joints in the sashes. The 
letter references in Figs. 1310 to 1335 are : 
A, inside lining ; b, outside lining ; c and d, 
head lining ; e, pulley stile ; f, frame head ; 
G, guard bead ; h, head bead ; J, parting 
slip ; k, back lining ; m, parting bead ; n, 




Fig. 1364. 



-Template applied to Stile of Bottom 
Sash. 



sash rail ; R, sill ; s, sill bead ; t, throating. 
The description of the construction of the 
sash frame and sashes is now complete, but 
the next four paragraphs will discuss in 
detail some of the operations briefly de- 
scribed above, and will suggest alternative 
methods. 

Dovetailing Meeting Rails of Sashes. 

Several methods are adopted in making 
the joints between the meeting rails and 
stiles of sashes, and perhaps the most com- 
mon form of joint is that of the mortice 
and tenon, the stiles being allowed to 
extend about 3 in. beyond the meeting rails, 
and the projecting horns being worked and 
moulded as brackets. This method, how- 
ever, is seldom resorted to in first-class work, 
the joint being either mortised and tenoned 
in the ordinary way, or else dovetailed. 
In the former case — no matter how good 
the joint may be — as the mortice is cut with 
a saw in the same way as the tenon, there 
is always a risk of the joint becoming 
loosened by the frequent use of the sash :; 
this trouble may be entirely obviated by 
the adoption of the dovetail joint already 
illustrated and described. Assuming 
that the stuff for the sashes is planed 
up and set out, it will be necessary 
to prepare a template as shown in 
Fig. 1363 ; this should be made out of a 

18* 



piece of hardwood, about 6 in. long, of the 
same width as the sash stuff — which may 
be taken at If in., and -^ in. thick. Square 
each end, and, distant therefrom the thick- 
ness of the meeting rail, each end should 
be squared round and sunk as shown in the 
side view given in Fig. 1365. The mortice 
gauge, having been set to the work, should 
now be run along each face from its tried- 
up edge, and the dovetails marked and 
cut, giving them about J-in. bevel. One end 
should be legibly marked " top " and the 
other " bottom," and the tried-up mark 
should be placed on both faces and to one 
edge. To use the template, proceed as 
follows : Take the bottom pair of stiles 
— which should be about -^ in. too long at 
the top end — lay them together on the bench 
with the tried-up edges outwards in each 
case, set to one of them, on the setting-out 
line of the under side of meeting rail, that 
portion of the template squared across and 
marked " bottom," so that its tried-up edge 
corresponds with the tried-up edge of the 
pulley stile, and then mark the dovetails 
with the setting-out knife as indi- 
cated at Fig. 1364. Serve the other stile 
the same by turning the template over 
on to it, then take the meeting rail of the 
bottom sash, fix it in the bench screw with 
its face-mark away from the bench, and set 




Fig. 1365.— Template applied to End of Meeting 
Rail of Bottom Sash. 

the end of the template marked " bottom " 
on the end of the rail ; make their tried-up 
edges agree, and then mark the end 
of the rail as shown at Fig. 1365. 
If these ends are previously rubbed 
with chalk it will be found an advantage. 



418 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



The opposite end of the same rail is marked 
in a similar way by turning the template over. 
The top stiles and meeting rails are marked 
in a similar manner, using the end of the 
template marked " top " ; but the tried- 
up side of the template is used from the 
rebated side of the rail and stile instead 
of from the face or tried-up side. A mortice 
gauge set to the tops of the dovetails should 
now be run across the ends of the stiles, 
and should also be set for and run along the 
tops and under sides of the rails ; these lines 
are required to cut to, and the cutting should 
be done in the same manner as for ordinary 



meeting rail running through for the purpose 
of bevelling; while b shows a projection 
of the stile and meeting rail of the top sash, 
with the moulding cut away on the stile 
and the meeting rail running through on the 
inside for bevelling purposes. In putting 
the sashes together, these joints should be 
pinned ; and if these instructions are fol- 
lowed, the difficulties experienced will be 
few and slight. 

Cutting Pockets in Sash Frames. 

There are several methods of cutting 
pockets in sash frames, and one has been 





Fig. 1366. — A, Dovetailed Joint between Meeting Rail and Stile of Bottom Sash ; B, Dovetailed 
Joint between Meeting Rail and Stile of Top Sash. 



mortising and tenoning — namely, outside 
the line for the tenon or dovetail, and in- 
side for the mortice. The mortised portions 
on the stiles and rails should be cut out, 
and the shoulders should be partly cut in 
previous to rebating and moulding. This 
completed, it will be found that at the tops 
of the bottom stiles a small portion of 
the square will be left which will require 
chiselling off ; but on the bottom of the 
top stiles the whole of the mould will 
require removing up to the setting-out line, 
as well as a Small portion of the square left 
on the rebate side. Of course, it will be 
noted that the shoulders on the rails re- 
quire to be longer by the distance of the 
rebate and of the moulding. A reference to 
the isometrical views (a and b, Fig. 1366) will 
explain the processes : a showing a projection 
of the bottom stile and meeting rail, with 
the moulding left on the stile, the meeting 
rail scribed round it, and the back of the 



described at pp. 409 and 410. An old- 
fashioned method is shown by Figs. 1367 to 
1369, which represent the pocket as being 
cut in the centre of the pulley stile. This was 
at one time the general method, but it is 
seldom resorted to now, for the following 
reasons : — The hole, when cut in the centre 
of the stile, necessitated the use of a new 
piece of stuff to form the pocket piece, and, 
in varnished work, the new piece had to j 
match in grain as nearly as possible to the 
pulley stile. This involved loss of time, first 
in selecting the piece, and afterwards in 
fitting it. When cords were renewed, the 
removal of the pocket piece broke the surface 
of the paint, and its outline looked ragged 
and unsightly when replaced, a portion of it 
being always exposed to view. Figs. 1370 to 
1372 represent a method now generally 
adopted. It is superior to the old, because 
it takes less time, and is easier of construction. 
The original piece cut out is re-used to close 



WINDOW SASHES AND CASEMENTS. 



419 



! the pocket ; and, when the lines are re- 
| newed, any unsightliness occasioned by 
the removal of the pocket piece is concealed 
: by the bottom sash. Let it be assumed that 
, the frame in hand is of ordinary construc- 
tion, and that, with the rest of the stuff, 




Fig. 1368. 



Figs. 1367 to 1369.— Part Plan, Elevation, and 

Section of Pulley Stile, showing Sash Frame Pocket 

in Centre. 

the pulley stiles are ready tongued, grooved, 
etc. Lay a couple on the bench with the 
tried-up marks face to face (so as to get them 
in pairs) and level at both ends ; measure 
and mark across the tried-up edges, with 
the setting-out knife and square, a line 
1J in. from the bottom end. This is the 
depth that the stiles are sunk into the sill 
(see a, Fig. 1371) ; 6 in. above this, mark 
line b ; 18 in. above it mark line c (Fig. 1370). 
This gives a total of 2 ft. from the top of 
sill to the top of pocket, and, as the weights 
for this class of sash seldom exceed 19 in. in 
length, ample depth is thus allowed for 
getting them in or out. Assuming that the 
size of the sash frame is 5 ft. 6 in. by 3 ft. 
6 in., and that the sashes have a marginal 
bar and are glazed with 21-oz. sheet glass, 
the weights for the bottom sash should be 



about 9 lb. each, and those for the top 
sash 9J lb. each. The weights in the first 
case would be about 18 in. long, and in the 
latter, 19 in. ; the thickness of each would 
be If in. Set the bevel to the angle shown 
at d d in Fig. 1371 (which, measured verti- 
cally, will rise about 1J in.), and mark the 
stiles. Square these lines across both back 
and front (shown in dotted and full lines 
at e on elevation, Fig. 1370) as far as the 
outside of the groove of the parting bead ; 
set a cutting gauge to this distance, and 
gauge the backs as deep as the cutter will 
allow. Fix the stiles one at a time in the 
bench-screw, and, with a fine tenon or 
carcase-saw, accurately saw down the 
bevelled cuts shown at d d in section, taking 
care not to go deeper than the width of the 
plough -groove. Lay them on the bench, and, 
with a mallet, pass a pocket chisel (resembling 



k 



d 



1 



\> 



Fig. 1370. 




&- FV5A. 



D 



Fig. 1371. 



m 






2§ Fig. 1372. 

Figs. 1370 to 1372. — Part Plan, Elevation, and 

Section of Pulley Stile, showing Sash Frame Pocket 

at Side. 

an ordinary lj-in. firmer chisel, but having a 
thin, well-tempered blade) a few times up the 
length of the pocket, the outside edge of 
the parting-bead groove forming the gauge. 
Do not strike the chisel too deeply, as it is 
not the intention to go through. This done, 



420 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



give the pocket piece a tap or two with a 
mallet, and it will break off. The ragged 
strip of timber that formed the junction can 
be pared off with the chisel on the stile and 
planed off on the pocket piece. With the 
bevel at the same angle as before, but re- 
versed, mark and cut off from the top or 
apex of the pocket piece the cleat f (Fig. 
1371). Fix the pocket piece in its place 
with a fine screw at the bottom (as shown), 
Say a No. 6, but do not countersink the 
head, because, if the frame is painted, this 
would be puttied up and would be difficult to 
find when wanted. Reverse the stile, and 
fix the cleat which has been cut off the 
top of the pocket piece by forcing it down 
into its position a trifle inside the throat of 
the pocket at the top, as shown. Glue and 
securely sprig it, then put it on one side to 
dry. The pocket piece will be found to 
stand well flush with the face of the stile, as 
shown in dotted lines. Clean it off (tem- 
porarily removing screw), and run the plough 
up the groove to sink it to the same depth 
as that on the pulley stile. If this is not 
done, the parting bead cannot be driven 
home level its entire length, as it should be. 
More Elaborate Method.— Figs. 1373 to 
1375 represent a somewhat similar, but more 
elaborate, method of constructing pockets 
— suitable for better class work. The piece 



is cut out and re-used in the same manner 
as in the ordinary method, but the top and 







* 



Fig. 1373. 



|.cs^=c==^ 



Fig. 1374. 



Figs. 1373 to 1375. — Part Plan, Elevation, and 

Section of Pulley Stile, showing Improved Method 

of Cutting Pocket in Sash Frame. 

bottom of the opening, etc., are dealt with 
differently. The top cut is the same, but 




Fig. 1376.— General View of 

Cramps and Sash Cramped 

Up. 



WINDOW SASHES AND CASEMENTS. 



421 



less acute, and, instead of a bevelled saw 
cut at the bottom, two transverse cuts a a 
(Figs. 1373 and 1374) are made, one at the 
back and one at the front, J in. apart. When 
the piece is knocked out, this splits verti- 
cally down the centre between the two cuts, 
and must be left so. At the top of the 
opening at back, and in the centre, let in a 
piece of oak b 2 in. long, 1 in. wide, and \ in. 
thick, glued and screwed in as shown. This 
forms a cleat against which the pocket 
piece is checked ; in the latter a chase is cut 



fitting and fixing the hardwood stop B 
shown in Fig. 1374. 

Wedging Up Sashes. 

A method of wedging up sashes is de- 
scribed on p. 416. A simple improvised 





Fig. 1377. — Enlarged Detail of Cramp and Wedge for "Wedging Window Sashes. 



to correspond. It is important that no 
more should be cut out to form this chase 
than is absolutely necessary, so as to ensure 
good joints at c and d. Let the saw cuts 
a a be slightly pitched towards the front, 
as this will facilitate fitting in the pocket 
piece. Screw in when finished. In common 
work a pad-saw is used in place of the 
pocket chisel, the saw being started from 
a centre-bit hole in the corner. This method 
requires more care in fixing, and is less 
satisfactory than the use of the pocket 
chisel. Another method, and one that is 
frequently used, is to cut the top end on both 
sides with a pocket chisel or dovetail saw 



cramp used for this purpose is illustrated in 
Fig. 1376. It can be made out of quarter- 
ing about 3 in. by 3 in. Of course, smaller 
or larger sizes can be used, according to the 
sizes of the sashes to be wedged up. At 
one end a 1-in. or lj-in. mortice must be 
made right through as shown at Fig. 1377, 
where it will be seen that the back of the 
mortice is vertical, and the front part 
splayed so as to fit the wedge. Then a cleat 
should be nailed or screwed on, and the end 
of it that comes in contact with the wedge 
should be splayed at the same angle as the 





Fig. 1378. — Rod for Testing Diagonals. 



Fig. 1379.— Application of Rod for Testing 
Diagonals. 



as shown at Fig. 1331. The joint a, formed mortice. An important point to keep in 

by breaking away the pocket piece from the view is that the back of the wedge which 

stile, acts as a stop, and so obviates the fits against the piece that goes against the 

additional cost which would result from stile should all the while keep vertical while 



422 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



being driven down. At the other end of the 
piece of quartering a cleat should be nailed 
on. It will be found .best to make the 
wedges of hardwood. The distance between 
the back of the cleat and the back of the 
wedge should be sufficient to allow of the 
insertion of a piece of stuff at each end, 
to fit up against each stile as shown at a 
and b (Fig. 1376). These pieces should be 
about 1 in. off at each end from the tenons 
and mortices. The object of these pieces 
is to prevent the cramps bending in the 
stiles. If it is desired to glue up only two 
or three sashes, one cramp will be sufficient. 
If there are several, it would be decidedly 
better to have two cramps, as shown at Fig. 




Fig. 1380.— Mouse for Sash Line. 



1376 ; because when gluing up, the four 
joints have to be glued at one time, and in 
using one cramp, whilst two joints are being 
wedged up, the glue is setting in the other 
two, whereas by using two cramps the four 
joints can be cramped up at once. In 
wedging up, the cramps must be fixed across 
the bench the right distance apart, and so 
that they are quite out of winding. The 
sash should be face side down across the 
cramps, then the stiles should be knocked 
down halfway off the tenons. Then the 
tenons and shoulders on that side should be 
glued. Care must be taken not to get any 
glue on the ovolo moulding, or to put it 
so near that the glue squeezes out on to the 
moulding. The sash should be quickly 
turned over, so that the face side is up, and 
the tenons and shoulders on that side glued. 
Then the joints should be driven home, and 
the pieces placed against the sash stiles and 
the wedges tightened. Next test the diagon- 
als with a rod. The general form of this rod 



is shown at Fig. 1378, and the method of 
using it is indicated by the dotted lines at 
Fig. 1379. Say diagonal a c is longer than 
that at b d, then the end of the stile at c 
or at a must be struck with the hammer 
until the diagonals are found to be equal. 
The next thing will be to glue the ends of the 
wedges. This is usually done by dipping the 
ends in the glue-pot. They should then be 
inserted in the holes which have been made 
for them, then the inner wedges should just 
be driven in hand-tight. Then the four 
outer wedges should be driven well home, 
and finally the inner wedges driven home. 





Fig. 1381. — Attaching Fig. 1382. — Attaching 
Cord to Sash by a Knot. Cord to Sash by Nails. 

Replacing Broken Sash -line. 

Materials, etc. — Replacing a broken sash- 
line, although apparently a very easy job, 
is not really so. It is assumed that the 
disabled sash is the top one. First procure 
a sufficient length of sash-line ; this is sold 
in " knots " of twelve yards, and the proper 
kind is a plaited cord formed with four 
strands of hemp fibre, and about f in. in 
diameter. A few town clout nails will also 
be wanted, and a hammer, a 1-in. or lj-in. 
chisel, pair of pincers, bradawl, punch, and 
a " mouse." The last is formed by rolling 
a small piece of sheet lead, about 2J in. wide, 
into a cylinder, in which is embedded the 
end of about a yard of fine cord ; and its 
purpose is to pass over the sheave of the 
pulley, taking first its " tail," and then the 
sash-line which is attached to it, down the 
inside of the frame until it reaches the 



WINDOW SASHES AND CASEMENTS. 



423 



)ocket or hole where it can be fastened to 
the weight. The " mouse " is shown bent 
in Fig. 1380, and attached to the cord, 
ready for passing over the pulley ; the tail 
in the illustration is relatively short. 

Removing Beads. — First carefully remove 
the guard and parting beads which keep the 
sashes in the frame, avoiding bruising the 
edges of the frame with the chisel, which 
should be a wide one. If possible, avoid 
bending or breaking the nails which hold 
the bead in ; if this operation is managed 
properly, the nails' may be drawn out with 
the beads, and may be re-inserted in the 
original holes without driving the heads 
back. Insert the chisel at about the middle 
of the length of the side bead, and gently 
prise it off, working gradually towards each 
end, until all the nails have started, then 
pull firmly with one hand at the middle of 
the bead, so that it may be bent out in a 
curve towards the opposite side. Then in- 
sert the chisel between the sash and the 
bottom end of the bead, and cause the latter 
to slip past the mitre of the sill bead, when 
it will spring out into the hand. The end 
nails will probably be bent slightly in this 
operation, and should be straightened with 
the hammer on a spare piece of wood. If 
the sashes fit well, the opposite bead must 
also be removed in a similar manner ; but 
usually there is sufficient play for the sash 
to be drawn out diagonally. The broken 
cord being in the top sash, the bottom one 
must be got out of the way, and with a 
strong assistant and a little scheming it may 
be possible to hold it out of the way without 
removing the cords ; but generally one at 
least of these must be removed, and then 
the sash can be turned aside horizontally, 
hanging by the other. 

Removing and Attaching Cords. — One 
method of attaching cords to sashes is shown 
in Fig. 1381 ; here the cord lies in a plough 
groove in the back of the stile, and its end, 
passing through a hole made at the bottom 
of the groove, comes out into a larger hole 
lower down, where it is tied into a knot to 
prevent it slipping back. To remove this 
fastening, all that is necessary is to slacken 
the line, draw out the knotted end, and untie 
it with the pincers, when the end can be 
drawn through. A commoner method of 



fixing is shown in Fig. 1382 ; here a plough 
groove is made, extending halfway down the 
stile, and the cord is simply nailed in with 
clouts. To remove these, grasp the cord 
with the pincers as close as possible to 
the nail, lever it steadily out, and proceed 
with the others in the same way ; having 
released the cord, with an assistant holding 
the sash, tie a slip-knot in the cord and let 
it run up to the pulley. The bottom sash 
having been removed, take off the parting 
beads. Begin at the bottom of these, driv- 
ing the chisel in at the side of the bead 




Fig. 1383. — Removing Pocket Piece of Sash. 

gently, and, as it is levered down, tap the 
edge of the bead on each side with the 
hammer, when it will spring out of the 
groove ; then carefully ease it past the 
shoulder on the meeting rail of the top 
sash, when it can be drawn out entirely : 
noting which side the beads come from, so 
as not to transpose them when replacing. 
Draw down the top sash and remove it from 
the frame, when the end of the broken cord 
can be extracted and the sash left hanging 
by the other cord for the present. The 
next step is to remove the pocket piece — 
a kind of trap-door in the pulley stile, 
through which the weights are inserted ; it 
will be found either in the middle of the 



\-2\ 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



pulley stile, just below the position of the of the pocket piece, and, pulling it firmly, 

meeting rails, or between the inside edge tap sharply at the same time with the ham- 

and the parting groove, as shown in Fig. mer on the face of the pulley stile, and the 

1314. Insert a bradawl near the lower end piece will be released. Next slip the hand 




Fig. 1384.— Weight Sash. 




Fig. 1385. — Elevation of Double-Hung Window. 




Fig. 1386. — Horizontal Section of Double-Hung Window. 




WINDOW SASHES AND CASEMENTS. 



425 



through the opening, pushing the loose part- 
ing slip on one side, when the disconnected 
weight will be found and can be drawn out. 
Replacing the Sash-line. — Cut and remove 
the broken line from the eye, and replace 
the weight in the opening with its head 
sticking out ; then stretch the cord as much 
as possible, cut off the end square with a 
sharp knife or chisel, and fasten the " tail " 
of the mouse to it, just as a rope-end is 
" whipped " ; that is, by a series of half- 
hitches drawn tight and close to the end of 
the cord, as in Fig. 1380. The cord being 
tied securely, bend the mouse slightly, as 
shown, and pass it over the pulley, and, 
keeping the string in the middle with the 
ringers, allow the mouse to run down until 
the end of the sash-line can be passed 
through the face of the pulley, when the 
mouse may be reached with the ringers 
through the pocket, and the end of the line 
drawn down to the opening. It may next 
be fastened to the weight, passing the end 
through the hole in the head, shown in Fig. 
1384, and pushing it out through the eye 
with a bradawl, when it can be knotted and 
drawn back, the knot being hammered into 
the eye until it is flush with the sides. 
Measure the distance of the end of the 
original cord from the top edge of the sash 
as shown by the nail-holes, and mark the 
same distance on the pulley stile from the 
head of the frame. Pull up the weight 
about 1J in. from the bottom, and cut the 
cord off to the mark just made, or, in case of 
a knotted cord, as shown in Fig. 1381, suffi- 
cient being added to make the knot. Bring 
the sash up into position, and fix the cord 
either by knot or nails as required, taking 
care when replacing the weight that it 
goes in on the outside of the parting slip 
in the boxing, so that the slip lies between 
the two weights. Eeplace the pocket piece, 
the upper end being inserted first and then 
the lower knocked home, and fix the part- 
ing beads in place. To get these in, bring 
the top sash down to the sill, and slip the 
lower end of the parting bead between the 
overhanging end of the meeting rail and 
the groove ; then bend it out slightly in the 
middle until the top end will go in its place, 
when the remainder may be sprung back and 
knocked home. The bottom sash is next 



426 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



brought round into position, and the re- 
leased cord pulled out straight from its slip- 
knot and re-fastened in its original place. 
When re-nxing~the guard beads, enter the 



procedure described above being in obtain- 
ing the length of the cord : in this case 
measure the distance of the end of the cord 
from the bottom edge of the sash, and mark 




Fig. 1388.— Conventional Section of Double-Hung Window. 




nh 



j^ 



^J 



Fig. 1389. — Joint at Meeting Rail of Top Sash. Fig. 1390. — Joint at Meeting Rail of Bottom Sash. 



top end in the mitre, and bend out the 
middle until the lower end will pass into its 
place. Should the broken cord be in the 
bottom sash, obviously only that one need 
be taken out, and only the parting bead 
covering the pocket on the side of the break 
needs removal, the single variation in the 



it on the pulley stile upwards from the~sill, 
and transfer the mark to the cord when the 
weight is drawn nearly close up to the pulley. 
It sometimes happens that cords are put in 
without being stretched, and, in conse- 
quence, the weights soon touch bottom, with 
the result that the top sash will not keep 



WINDOW SASHES AND CASEMENTS. 



427 



: close up to the top and the bottom sash will 
i not run up to its full height. The easiest 

way to remedy these faults is to remove the 
; beads, push the sashes right up, take out 
I the weights, and shorten the cords about 

2 in. 




Solid Window Frame with Movable 
Top Sash. 

The form of window shown by Fig. 1391 
is used for workshops, and in other situa- 
tions where it is not desirable for the lower 



UII: 




mill^^I 




Fig. 1393. — Horizontal Section 
through DD (Fig. 1391). 



iilllpi 


U 














/<> 


HiJ 


^3g05~ ~~~ ,^ 



Fig. 1394.— Enlarged Detail 
through EE (Fig. 1391). 



Fig. 1391.— Half Outside and Half Inside 

Elevations of Solid Window Frame with 

Movable Top Sash. 

Working Drawings of Double = Hung 
Window. 

Fig. 1385 is the front elevation, Fig. 1386 
the horizontal section, and Fig. 1387 the 
vertical section of a double-hung window ; 
Figs. 1386 and 1387 represent, reproduced 
to a reduced scale, the ordinary work- 
ing drawings that are generally required. 
The connection of the frame with the sill 
and other parts is shown. Fig. 1388 is a 
conventional section showing the genera] 
construction of a lower corner of the frame 
and sash. Fig. 1389 shows the joint between 
the stile and the meeting rail of the top 
sash ; it also shows the moulded horn. 
Finally, Fig. 1390 illustrates the joint 
between the stile and the meeting rail of the 
lower sash; 





F^Ml] 


H 



Fig. 1396.— Detail of Por- 
tion indicated by F G 
(Fig. 1391). 



Fig. 1392. — Enlarged 
Detail of Vertical 
Section (Fig. 1391). 



part of the window to open. Details are 
shown by Figs. 1393 and 1394. The bars 
are framed right into the solid jambs. It 
is necessary, however, that the upper part 
of the window should open for ventilation, 
etc. In this instance this object is secured 
by having the sash hung on centres. A 
transom rail a (Figs. 1391, 1392, and 1396) 



428 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



is tenoned into the jambs, and its lower sur- follows : Jambs, head, and sill of frame, 

face is rebated and chamfered similarly to 2f in. by 3| in. ; bars, 1 in. by If in. ; sash, 

the bars. Its upper surface is splayed and stiles, and top rail, If in. by If in. ; bottom 

rebated to receive the bottom rail of the sash. rail of sash, If in. by 2J in. in its 





Fig. 1398. — Joints between Bars 
of Solid Window. 



widest part ; frieze rail of frame which 
meets bottom rail of sash, If in. by 1J in. 




Fig. 1395.— Detail of Joints at Bottom of Framings 
at Transom and Head. 

This is shown at Figs. 1392 and 1396. 
The under surface of the head of the frame, 
it will be noticed, is splayed a little. This 
is to allow the bead marked b, which has 
to be nailed to the top rail of the sash, to 
clear the head of the frame as the sash is 
opened. The leading finished sizes are as 




-Detail of Joints in Top Sash. ; 

Old-style Casement Windows. 

Figs. 1401 and 1402 are respectively sec- 
tions through the jamb, head, and sill of 
a solid casement frame, sunk flush with the 
face of a stone wall, which is duly checked 




WINDOW SASHES AND CASEMENTS. 



429 



fc=^ 



Fig. 1406. — Joints at Corners of Frame 
and Casements. 




Fig. 1400. — Horizontal Section. 




Fig. 1405. — Isometric View showing 
Method of Fixing Frame. 



Fig. 1401. — Vertical Section. 





Fig. 1402. — Horizontal Section. 

in order to cover the joint, which mitres 
into the lower member of the cornice, as 
shown in Fig. 1402. A lead flashing laid 



Fig. 1403. — Section through Head. 

to receive the frame. The sill is shown re- 
bated § in. deep, and should be bedded in 
cement, and its ends built into the wall. If 
the cornice is carried over the face of the 
wall and returned upon it, then the head 
of the frame can be likewise built in, which 
is the preferable method ; otherwise the 
frame may be secured by wedging from the 
lintel, as shown in Fig. 1401. A stout 
moulding is planted on the face of the jambs 







Fig. 1404.— Section through Sill. 

over the cover board of the cornice and up 
the face of the wall will prevent the ingress 
of the wet. The casements, of which there 
are three, open out, and are hung to the 
jambs, the centre leaf being fixed. The 
meeting stiles are rebated together. The 
glazing is a leaded lattice. The sections 



430 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



(Figs. 1400 to 1405) show a more unusual 
case ; here the frame projects beyond the 
face of the wall. A j-in. check or rebate 
is made all round the inner edge of the 
frame, and the joint in this case should be 
made with red-lead and oil. The frame is 
secured by wrought-iron forked angle-ties 
sunk flush into the back face of the frame 
and built into the wall (see Fig. 1400) ; two 
ties on each jamb will be sufficient. The 
ties may either be turned up square at the 
ends so as to hook behind a stone, or drawn 
out to a pin end and sunk into a hole cut in 




Fig. 1407. 



Fig. 1408. 



Fig. 1407. — Outside Elevation of Small Casement 
Window. 

Fig. 1408. — Vertical Section of Small Casement 
Window. 



Fig. 1409. — Horizontal Section of Small Casement 
Window. 



the stone. The bracketing for the cornice 
may either be built into the wall, which is 
advisable if hardwood is employed for the 
cornice, or the stools may be secured to the 
wall with joint hooks. Fig. 1406 indicates 
the method of joining the angles of the 
frame and casements. The head of the 
frame runs over the jamb, and is cut off 
flush with the outside. The joint is secured 
with wedged tenons, which may also be 
pinned: In the casement, however, the 
stile runs through in the usual way, the 
rails being tenoned into the stile. No glue 



should be used in putting trese franes to- 
gether, but the joints should be well painted 
with a thick or " round " oil paint. The 
wall ties should either be galvanised or 
painted before fixing. 




Fig. 1410. 



-Joints of Jamb and Head, and Jamb 
and Sill. 



Small Casement Window. 

The construction of a solid frame and case- 
ment is shown by Figs. 1407 to 1409. The 
frame is made of 4-in. by 3-in. stuff, mor- 
tised and tenoned together at the joints as 



WINDOW SASHES AND CASEMENTS. 



431 



showr fct Fig. 1410. The frame is also 
rebated'; the rebate on the sill being splayed 
for weathering. It will be noticed that the 
shoulder to the tenon on the stiles will have 
to be^cut on the splay so as to fit the sill as 
showr. at Fig. 1410. The ordinary method is 
to paint the joints and wedges when wedg- 
ing up, but additional security is obtained 
by pinning. The stiles and head are beaded 
inside and out as shown. The sides and top 
rails of the casements are of lf-in. by lf-in. 
stuff (finished sizes), and are rebated for the 





Fig. 1411.— Joint of Stile 
and Top Rail. 





Fig. 1412. — Conventional View 
of Meeting Stiles. 




Fig. 1413. — Joint of Bottom Rail and Stile. 

glass and chamfered and mortised and 
tenoned together. In the joint shown 
at Fig. 1411, it will be seen that 
the shoulder on the head is scribed to fit 
the chamfer on the stiles. The bottom 
rail, If in. by 3J in., is also rebated and 
chamfered, and is mortised and tenoned to 
the stile as shown in Fig. 1413. The joints 
of these casements are glued and wedged 
together in the ordinary manner. The 
bottom rail is splayed on its under edge, 
and grooved to prevent moisture rising by 
capillary action. The meeting stiles are 



rebated and beaded, the rebates being 
splayed as shown at Fig. 1412, so that they 
will open more easily. 

Venetian Sash Frames. 

Wide sash frames, divided into three or 
more lights all in the same plane, are called 
Venetian frames ; but if two of the lights are 
at an inclination to the other, the frame 
becomes a bay. If a frame contains two 
pairs of sashes in the same plane, that is, 
side by side, it is called a double window, or 
a two -light frame ; but if the frame contains 
two sets of sashes, not in the same plane, but 
behind each other, it is a double-sash frame. 

Solid Mullion Venetian Sash Frame. 

Venetian frames are of three varieties, 
each of which requires different treatment 
both in planning and making. The first is 
the solid mullion frame shown in Figs. 1414 to 
1420, Fig. 1414 showing half outside eleva- 
tion, and Fig. 1416 half inside elevation. 
This is the commonest kind, and is intended 
for narrow openings, where the- span is 
not too great to be supported by a lintel 
and the frame. In this class it is usual to 
make the central sashes much wider than 
the side ones, and to fix these latter. Much 
of the information given at the opening of 
this chapter on the construction of a sash 
frame is applicable to the present case. In 
making a frame similar to the one shown, 
proceed to make a plan and vertical section, 
full size, on a board or rod. Beginning with 
the size of the opening, draw, for the width, 
the faces of the pulley stiles in a line with 
the reveals of the brickwork, or according 
to the architect's plans, and with these 
as starting points proceed to space out the 
mullions, linings, sashes, beads, etc., work- 
ing from the specification or whatever data 
may be available. In setting out the 
rod, it is advisable to consider the practice 
of the shop for which the work has to 
be done, whether it is the custom to work 
to drawing, or to reputed sizes, the 
former being the practice in most machine 
shops, the latter the one in favour with hand 
shops ; for instance, in a machine shop the 
stiles for 1^-in. sashes would leave the planing 
machine 1^ in. thick exactly ; the path for 
them would be set out 1^ in. wide, and the 



432 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 




Fig. 1414.— Half Outside Elevation of Solid Mullion Frame. 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 




DESIGN FOR A SHOP FRONT. 



WINDOW SASHES AND CASEMENTS. 



433 




Fig. 1417.— Half Horizontal Section of Solid Mullion Frame. 



434 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 






subsequent cleaning off would afford the 
necessary clearance ; but in a hand shop 
lj-in. sashes would be made from reputed 
H-in. or one-cut stuff, which, by the time 



in arched openings ; in this case allowance 
must be made for the rise, as the section 
shown on the rod should be a central one ; 
draw in the head of the frame in line with 




Fig. 1418. — Conventional View of Solid Mullion Frame. 



it was cleaned off, would only hold If in. 
bare, and the path of the sash would require 
drawing If in. full. On the height rod the 
size of the opening is frequently taken from 
the top of the stone sill to the under side of 
the soffit of the reveal, or the springing line 



the under side of the arch, and the thickness 
of the oak sill above the sill line, and space 
out the remaining heights as shown in Fig. 
1415. As this is a solid mullion frame with 
the side lights fixed, provision has to be 
made for carrying the cords from the central 



WINDOW SASHES AND CASEMENTS. 



435 



pair of sashes to the weights in the outside 
boxings. In the case of the top sash, this is 
accomplished by making a plough groove 
in the head of the outside side lights as 
shown at a in the conventional view (Fig. 
1418), and in the bottom sash by taking 
the cord over pulleys in the mullion and 
pulley stile, and concealing it in the side 
openings by cover slips, as shown at b in the 
conventional view (Fig. 1418). These must 
be wide enough to reach from the face of the 
top light to the face of the frame, must be 
beaded on the edge to match the guard 
beads with which they mitre, and ploughed 




Fig. 1419. — Isometric View of Joint of Mullion 
and Lining with Sill. 

on the rear side with a similar groove to the 
head of the top light. This arrangement 
is shown at Fig. 1418. It is assumed that 
the stuff is machine wrought. 

Quantities for Solid Mullion Frame. — 
One oak sill, length 2 in. longer than out 
to out of frame, 3 in. by 5f in., wrought to 
section ; one head, length ditto by 1J in. 
by 4J in. ; two mullions, length out of head 
to out of sill, 2 in. by 4J in. ; two pulley 
stiles, length clear between sight lines of 
head and sill plus housings by 1 in. by 4| in. ; 
two back linings, length inside of head to out 
of sill, by J in. by 5 in. ; two inside linings, 
1J in. longer than height of frame over all, 
by 1 in. by 4f in. ; one head lining (inside), 
length 1 in. longer than clear between pulley 
stiles, by 1 in. by 3 in. ; one head lining (out- 
side), length ditto by 1 in. by 4| in. ; two 
outside linings ditto to inside ; two mullion 



linings, 1 in. longer than clear between head 
and sill, by 1 in. by 3J in. ; six parting 
beads, inside of head to out of sill, by f in. 
by 1 in. ; two parting slips ditto by J in. by 
2 in. ; six guard beads 1 in. longer than inside 
of head to inside of sill by J in. by 1 J in. ; one 
ditto length of central opening head ; three 
sill guard beads, length between pulley 
stiles and mullions by J in. by 1 J in. bevelled 
to section ; two cover beads, length equal 
width of side lights by £ in. by 3J in. This 
completes the frame. Sizes for sashes will 
be taken from the rod in a similar manner, 
allowing 1 J in. longer over all for stiles, and 
| in. longer for rails and bars. Remember 
that brackets are to be worked on top 




Fig. 1420. — Top of Mullion, showing Pulleys and 
Tenon. 

sashes (see a, Fig. 1343). The above sizes 
are finished ones for the planing machinist. 
The converter will require a separate list, 
with an extra J in. allowed for each side 
wrought. Thus the mullion size to him 
would be, length as above, by 2J in. by 
4| in., and so on. 

Construction of Solid Mullion Frame. — 
Before beginning to set out the stuff, con- 
sider how the frame is to be constructed. 
The pulley stiles will be housed into head 
and sill in the usual way, as explained at the 
beginning of this section. The mullions 
will be tenoned through head and sill as 
indicated in Figs. 1419 and 1420, and 
painted and wedged ; they will also be kept 
flush on the inside as shown in the half 
horizontal section (Fig. 1417), the outside 
lining being nailed on. The head linings 
will run right across the frame until they 
meet the side linings ; they are not cut 
between the mullions (see Fig. 1418, 
which shows the arrangement of the 



436 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



cords), as this weakens the frame. The 
cover beads are cut tight between pulley 
stile and mullion, and are held in posi- 
tion by the guard bead on one edge and 
the parting bead on the other ; remember 
that this cuts under the cover piece (see 
Fig. 1418). Pocket pieces should be cut in 
the centre of the pulley stiles, and not at 
the side, otherwise inside linings cannot be 
fixed for a distance of 15 in. or 18 in., which 
is objectionable to some architects, who 
consider that the pulley stiles are thus 
considerably weakened. 

Setting Out Solid Mullion Frame. — As a 
precaution, run the rule over the stuff and 
see that the sizes are correct ; if not, note 
the necessary allowances to be made. Take 
the head, lay it on the rod, face side down, 
and strike over sight or face lines of pulley 
stiles, mullions, and parting slips. Turn 
it back ; mark over J-in. grooves for heads 
of pulley stiles ; set mortices for mullions 
J in. back from the sight line, and mortices 
for parting slips to lines drawn ; gauge the 
mullion mortices from inside f in. thick 
and one side in line with parting bead (see 
Figs. 1417 and 1419). Mortices for parting 
slips may be pencilled on in line with the 
parting bead (see rod, Fig. 1417). Gauge 
everything from the inside. Pair the sill 
with the head, and strike over all the sight 
lines with the exception of the parting slip 
mortices. Outside the pulley stile face lines, 
mark the housing, which is of the thickness 
of the pulley stile plus the wedging. The 
depth should be J in. more than the lower 
point of the weathering ; more is unneces- 
sary, merely weakening the sill without 
strengthening the stile. Square over the 
shoulder lines of the linings on both faces 
in line with the pulley stile ; run the gauge 
on for the sinkings ; these will be found on 
plan. Square over the mortices for the 
mullions, run the mortice gauge on the end, 
and transfer the lines to the sunk faces 
with the rule from outside. Gauge the 
plough grooves for the window -board and 
the water bar (see section, Fig. 1415). 

Pulley Stiles of Solid Mullion Frame.— 
Lay one on the rod, and strike over the sight 
lines of head and sill, turn up, and mark 
over If in. at bottom — this amount will 
vary, however, with weathering — and f in. 



at top for housings. Set out the pocket 
6 in. up from the sight line ; the length will 
vary as the height of frame ; usually keep- 
them 2 in. shorter than the weights. Mark 
over at the top end mortices for pulleys. 
( It will be noted that the pulleys have to be 
kept close up to the head of the frame, 
allowing just clearance for the wheels to 
turn ; sometimes purpose-made pulleys are- 
used ; where ordinary pulleys are used, file 
the top ends off J in. above the wheel, and, 
when fixing, keep them J in. above the 
shoulder of the mullion, as shown in Fig. 
1420, and house them into the head, thus- 
fixing the top ends.) Gauge the rebates, 
the inside one on the face, the outside one 
on the back, and plough groove f in. for 
parting bead, which is as much out of centre 
of the stile as the guard bead overhangs the 
inside lining (see Figs. 1417 and 1418). 
With the squaring over of the shoulder of the 
housing on the top back side, and gauging 
\ in. full tongue on the end, the pulley 
stiles are finished ; the mullions may be 
set out from these. "With the exception 
that no housings have to be allowed, the top 
ends being shouldered at the sight line, and 
the bottom the same inside (on outside allow- 
ing the sinking, and marking the shoulder 
to bevel of sill), it is a wise precaution to 
allow this rather full, as sills may vary. 
Gauge for parting grooves and tenons. To 
find the position for mortices for pulleys, 
draw lines equal to the thickness of the 
sashes on each side of the parting groove ; 
the centre of this will be the centre of the 
mortices — make them so that the box of the 
pulley fits tight. The linings require gauging 
for the various plough grooves, or rather, 
one of each kind should be sufficient for the 
machine, as, when once set, all will be run 
through exactly alike. Mark sight lines 
on the edge of the outside linings, and run 
f-gauge on each end for a saw cut. The 
pieces will be cut off when fitting up. 

Cover Beads. — Draw these on the section, 
and gauge the groove on the back (see Fig. 
1418). 

Beads.- — Draw on sections, and that com- 
pletes the setting out of the frame. In 
setting out for machine work, all stuff that 
is moulded should have a section drawn 
on the face of one piece, with a reference 



le 



WINDOW SASHES AND CASEMENTS. 



437 



-to the number required. These sections 
should be drawn exactly to size, without any 
.allowances ; mark these on the length of 
the shoulders, etc. On the other hand, all 
tongues, rebates, cross-cut grooves, etc., 
should have allowances for fitting and 
•cleaning off, and sections drawn accord- 
ingly ; plough grooves in the direction of 
grain, and mortices, should be marked 
exactly as wanted. The setting out of 
sashes, having been fully described early 
in this section, will not be repeated here. 
Remember, however, that as side lights in 



nailing the pulley stiles (note, avoid the 
pulleys) ; lay it on the bench, outside down, 
and square the frame ; cramp up the mul- 
lions, paint the wedges, and wedge up. Fix 
the sill to a bench piece, square with a rod, 
and fix the head to bench top, cut off ends of 
wedges, level sinking of sill with pulley stile, 
cut away the piece of tongue on the ends 
of head to let lining run, up and fix on 
inside linings ; cut the head lining tightly 
between these, and nail on. Keep the out- 
side edge flush on back, clean off, and fit 
guard beads in ; these should be rebate 




Fig. 1421. — Half Horizontal Section through Venetian Sash Frame with Double Weights. 



wmmm. 




Fig. 1422. — Horizontal Section through Mullion 
arranged for Four Weights. 

this frame have to be fixed, they should 
"be set out rather wider than would be the 
case if they were hung. 

Fitting Up Solid Mullion Frame. — Examine 
all grooves, housings, and mortices ; see 
that they are of the required depth, and 
•clear the wedging. Next fit the pocket 
pieces, running the plough groove through ; 
fit in the pulleys, and clean off the stiles. 
Do the same with the mullions, and fit the 
parting beads ; also fit, that is, mullet, 
all tongues. Take a shaving off the edges 
and bottom ends of the outside linings ; 
these cannot be done afterwards, as the 
sill projects \ in., or should do, to allow for 
shrinkage. Wedge the pulley stiles in the 
sill out of winding with each other, drive in 
the mullions, and put the head on, well 




Fig. 1423. — Horizontal Section through Mullion 
arranged for Double Weights. 

mitered (see Fig. 1436). Turn over and re- 
peat the process, first fitting in parting beads 
and slips, finally nailing on the back linings, 
and blocking the head. Kub a block on 
the joint. 

Double Weight Venetian Sash Frame. 

The second class of Venetian frames, 
shown in the half horizontal section (Fig. 
1421), is for wider openings supported and 
divided by thin brick or stone mullions. In 
these cases the whole six sashes can be hung ; 
but they must be about equal in size. Full 
details are illustrated in Figs. 1421 to 1437. 
If it is desired to hang all the sashes, and 
the size of the pier or mullion restricts the 
boxing to about 6 in., there would not be 
room for two sets of weights. A special 



438 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



form of weight then used in the centre box- 
ings is square in section, with a pulley cast 
in the top end through which the cord is 
passed, with its ends taken over the pulleys 
and fastened to the top or bottom sashes on 
each side, as shown in the sectional view, 



edge of the sash stile. Fig. "1423 shows an 
enlarged section of the boxed mullion ; Fig. 
1425 a sectional elevation of the top end 
with the outside lining off, showing weight in 
position with top sash down and bottom one 
up. The housings for the*pulley stiles of the 



(S feg-^ f~*~") m^ =3 



Fig. 1425. — Sectional Eleva- 
tion through Upper Part of 
Boxing (One Weight serving 
Two Sashes). 




Fig. 1424.— Vertical 

Section through Head 

and Sill. 



Fig. 1426.— Portion of Sill showing- 
Housings, Weathering, etc. 



Fig. 1425. Thus, for each set of three sashes, 
four weights are made to answer. Of 
course, in this kind the sashes must be very 
similar in size, as the double weight has to 
equal twice the half weight of each sash ; and 
if one sash was much heavier than the other, 
the lighter one would be continually pulled 
up. This tendency can to some extent be 
checked by inserting a piece of cork in the 



millions are stopped on the outside of the 
sill as shown in Fig. 1426, and the bottom 
ends of the outside linings should be tongued 
on the back side into the sill. The inside 
linings should run over the sill and head as 
in an ordinary frame, so as to tie the frame 
together, as there is no wedged mullion in 
this case. The pulleys can be fixed as usual 
about lh in. down from the top ; only one 



WINDOW SASHES AND CASEMENTS. 



439 



: pocket will be wanted in each mullion. 

| Thinner pulley stiles are occasionally used 

in the mullions, to gain additional room. 

Large Venetian Sash Frame. 

The third class of Venetian frame is" for the 
I widest openings, with thick stone or brick 



and sill (see Fig. 1426) to keep it in posi- 
tion whilst fixing the outside linings. 
Several variations have been introduced 
into this frame, which is frequently made 
entirely of oak. The head is made 2 in. 
thick, with a planted tongue on the inside 
to economise labour and material. The 




Fig. 1427. — Half Horizontal Section through Venetian Sash Frame. 




Fig. 1428. — Conventional Sectional View through Boxings and Mullions of Sash Frame. 



piers and correspondingly wide mullions in 
the frames, in which the sashes may vary in 
width according to taste, and may all be 
hung, or part hung and part fixed. In Fig. 
1427 is shown half horizontal section of a very 
large frame, with sashes of varying width and 
a wide boxed mullion to cover a brick pier, 
there being ample room for two sets of 
weights here. The conventional sectional 
view (Fig. 1428) will convey a general 
idea of the construction of this class of 
frame. The box is divided by a central 
lining, which should be housed into head 



tongues are necessary because in hardwood 
the linings would be fixed with brads driven 
on the skew through the edge and hidden 
by the beads, which would be fixed with cups 
and Screws. The inside linings are kept 
J in. back from the pulley-stile face to form 
a rebate for the bead and also to hide the 
joint. This setting back must be allowed 
for when housing the sill, for the shoulders 
on the sill abutting the linings will stand 
J in. in front of pulley stile (see Figs. 1424 and 
1427). The parting bead is run through the 
head, the sides being scribed up to it. The 



440 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



Fig. 1429.— Lower 
Part of Pulley Stile 
prepared for Pocket 
Piece and for Ven- 
tilator Slip. 




Fig. 1432. Fig. 1433. 

Figs. 1432 and 1433.— Upper Corner of Inside 

Linings Framed by Mortice-and-Tenon and 

Wedging. 





Fig. 1430.— End 

of Ventilator 

Slip. 




Fig. 1431.— End of 

Inside Lining 
Notched to receive 
Ventilator Slip. 




Fig. 1434 



Fig. 1435 



Fig. 1436. 



Fig. 1437. 



Figs. 1436 and 1437.— Method of Rebating and 
Mitering Beads. 



Figs. 1434 and 1435. — Dovetail Joint between 
Meeting Rail and Stile of Lower Sash. 

2J-in. weathered and beaded piece shown 
on the sill at o (Fig. 1424) is a ventilator slip. 
Its purpose is to allow of the window being 
opened 2 in. between the meeting rails for 
ventilation, whilst avoiding a direct draught 
at the bottom rail. It is weathered so that 
the bottom rail of the sash shall fit tightly 
against it when shut, but instantly release 



WINDOW SASHES AND CASEMENTS. 



441 



itself when lifted. It should be inserted in 
the frame before fixing the inside linings, 
being cut in between the tongues of the 
pulley stiles as shown in Fig. 1429. Cut a 
piece out of these to fit the bevel, then form 
a bareface tenon on the slip (see Fig. 1430) 
and notch the lining over it (see Fig. 1431). 
This secures it firmly in place. The tongue 
should be well painted before insertion. In 
this class of frame the linings are usually 
framed at the corners as shown in Figs. 1432 
and 1433, the head linings running through 
and the mullion linings tenoned into them 



of the ends of the meeting rail and the stile 
of the bottom sash, showing the best form 
of joint. Always leave the meeting rails 
rather wide, so that they can be fitted 
accurately when the sashes are fitted in, and 
thus prevent rattling. Figs. 1436 and 1437 
show the rebate mitre of the beads. The 
reference letters in the illustrations of the 
Venetian sash frames (Figs. 1421 to 1426) are 
as follows :— e, pulley stile : f, head ; g, 




Ik -' "'- 




Mil 

PC 


! 
: 

I, — 


11 II 

n 



Fig. 1439.— Vertical 
Section of Fig. 1438. 



Fig. 1440. — Horizontal Section of Fig. 1438. 



and also the sill. The frames would be put 
together as described for the solid mullion 
frame, except that the joints of the outside 
linings would be painted, and the joints of 
the inside glued, before cramping up and 
wedging. If the centre lining of the boxed 
mullions is crooked, it may be kept in 
position for getting the face lining on by 
cutting little struts tightly between it and 
the backs of the pulley stiles, which are 
knocked away by the weights when they 
go in and removed through the pocket. 
Figs. 1434 and 1435 are perspective sketches 



head lining ; h, outside lining ; j, inside 
lining ; k, sill ; l, mullion ; m, weight ; n, 
pulley ; o, ventilator slip ; p, parting slip ; 
Q, meeting rail ; R, sash stile ; s, guard bead ; 
t, parting bead. 

Sash Windows with Boxed Shutters 
in Brick=and=>a=Half Wall. 

The sash window shown in Figs. 1438 to 
1440 has boxed shutters, and is built in a 
brick-and-a-half wall. Details are illus- 
trated by Figs. 1441 to 1449. Figs. 1441 
and 1442 are conventional views of parts 



19 f 



44*2 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



of the outside, which is built in Flemish 
bond on the face, with old English backing. 
A camber gauged arch is shown, having a 
straight extrados and cambered intrados, 
the depth of the arch at the springing being 
12 in. Fig. 1443, which is a sectional view 
of the window as seen from the inside, 



various parts being prepared to the sizes 
indicated in the enlarged detail (Fig. 1448). 
The sill is ploughed and connected to the 
stone sill by a 1-in. by J-in. galvanised iron 
bar. The wooden sill is also prepared to 
receive the tongue of the window-board as 
shown at Fig. 1447. The head lining and 




Fig. 1441. — Conventional Sec- 
tional View of Top Corner of 
Window. 



Fig. 1442. — Sectional View of 

Bottom Corner of Window 

showing Sill, etc. 



Fig. 1443. — Sectional View 
of Window from Inside. 



shows the top corners of the sash, shutters, 
and architraves. Conventional views showing 
the details of the brickwork inside are given 
at Figs. 1445 and 1446 ;/4Jin. reveals''are 
provided for the sash frame, and there is a 
4J-in. recess for the shutters. A wooden lintel 
is shown, on which a core is formed, and on 



the upper ends of the inside lining are 
grooved to receive the tongue of the soffit 
lining. Both this lining and the window- 
board have to be cut round the frame as 
shown at Fig. 1447. The window-board is 





Fig. 1444. — Conventional View from Inside of 
Lower Corner of Window, Shutters, etc. 

this a two -ring relieving arch is built. The 
stone sill is shown 6 in. by 11 in., with level 
stools at each end for brick jambs. It is 
tool-sunk and weather-throated, and grooved 
for the metal weather-bar as shown at Fig. 
1449. The cased sash frame with double- 
hung sashes is of the ordinary character, the 



Fig. 1445. — General View from Inside of Upper 
Part of Opening 

ploughed to receive a small moulding under- 
neath, as shown at Figs. 1438 and 1439. It , 
is also prepared with a nosing, and returned 
at the ends as shown. The vertical inside 
linings are grooved to receive the tongue of 
the fillet a, to which the shutters are hung. 
Linings b (Fig. 1448) are provided with re- 






WINDOW SASHES AND CASEMENTS. 



443 



bates on the outer edge for the beads of the 
shutters to stop against. These linings are 
tongued into the soffit linings and into the 
window -board (see Fig. 1447), and are also 
slightly bevelled to form a key for plaster- 
ing. A fillet c (Fig. 1448), with a bead stuck 
on its edge, is fixed to the back edge of the 
vertical linings of the sash frame, and is 




is shown at Fig. 1438. On the inside, the 
opening is finished with 5-in. by f-in. facing 
grounds d (Fig. 1448), the outer edge being 
ovolo -moulded and the back edge splayed 
to receive plastering. On these facing 
grounds 4J-in. by 1^-in. architrave mouldings 
are fixed as shown. 

French Casements to Open Inwards. 

Figs. 1450 to 1457 show a pair of French 
casements hung to a solid frame, with tran- 
som, fanlight, splayed linings, etc. 

Frame and Linings. — It will not be 
necessary to describe in detail the construc- 



Fig. 1446. — General View from Inside of 
Lower Part of Opening. 




Fig. 1448.— Enlarged Detail of 
Horizontal Section. 





Fig. 1449.— Detail of Stone Sill. 

slightly splayed to form a key for the plaster- 
ing. As will be seen, there is one framed 
and panelled shutter on each side, the panels 
being bead-flush on the inside, and with 
mouldings planted on to the face side. Each 
shutter is hung with 3-in. wrought-iron 
butts to the fillets previously mentioned. 
The shutters are made with a flap, which 
(being narrow) is not framed, but is formed 
of a piece of board and clamped at each 
end to prevent warping. The shutter and 
flap are connected by 2J-in. back-flap 
hinges. A shutter bar of an ordinary form 



Fig. 1447. — Joints in Linings, etc. 

tion of these, as it is similar to work that 
has already received attention. General 
views of the joints in the frame are shown 
by Figs. 1456 and 1457. A part of the 
horizontal section is shown on a larger scale 
by Fig. 1453. 

Casements and Fanlight. — The construc- 
tion of the casements and fanlight is 
identical with that involved in sash work 
already treated ; it is therefore only neces- 
sary now to enumerate the special features 
of this example. The casements are con- 
structed to open inwards, and when therefore 
they occupy exposed situations, arrange- 
ments must be made for excluding wet and 
draught. The sill, made either of oak or 



444 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY 





U^ 



'A' 



Fig. 1450. 



^V>^ 



^J^ 



^^f 




Fig. 1450.— Half Outside and Half Inside 

Elevation of French Casements 

to Open Inwards. 

Fig. 1451. — Vertical Section of 
Fig. 1450. 

Fig. 1452. — Horizontal Section of 
Fig. 1450. 



Fig. 1452. 



WINDOW SASHES AND CASEMENTS. 



445 



teak, is double-sunk and splayed to receive 
a special water bar as shown. This is prob- 
ably one of the best methods of excluding 
wet. The water bar is hinged, and, when 
the casements are closed, is held up against 
the moulded weatherboard (as shown at 
Fig. 1454) by the striking plate screwed to 
the bottom rail of the casements. The under 
side of the sill is throated for weathering, 
and ploughed for a metal water bar, which is 




Fig. 1453. — Enlarged Detail of Horizontal Section 
(Fig. 1452). 

inserted to prevent water finding its way 
between the wooden sill and the stone sill. 
The wooden sill is to be also ploughed on 
the inside to receive the floorboards. A 
section through the sill and water -bar when 
the casements are open is presented by Fig. 
1455. The frame is ovolo-moulded outside, 
and lamb's-tongue moulded inside. The 
jambs are moulded inside and out, rebated 
with hollow sinking to receive round projec- 
tion of stile of casement, and ploughed on 
the inside to receive splay linings, as shown 




1 




jfi|i 


I 

11 


11 


1 b! Ii! 

tail 





ll 

1 


111 


Ujv 


MI 

111! 




Fig. 1454.— 

Enlarged Detail 

of Vertical 

Section (Fig. 

1451), 



446 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



at Figs. 1452 and 1453. The transom is 
moulded inside and out, and rebated to re- 
ceive the head of the casement ; and on the 
upper side is sunk, splayed, and throated 
to receive the bottom rail of the fanlight 
(see Figs. 1451 and 1454). The head of 
the frame is moulded, rebated for the head 
of the fanlight, and ploughed to receive the 
head of the splay linings, as shown 
at Figs. 1451 and 1454. The casements 



of the architrave, which is stopped at the 
bottom by a plinth as shown. 

Elliptical- headed Window with 

Casements and Fanlight in 

Solid Frame. 

The case illustrated by Figs. 1458 to 1465 
shows a solid frame with a transom and an 




Fig. 1455.— Section through Sill and 
Water Bar (Casements Open). 

are ovolo-moulded and hung folding, the 
meeting stiles having a hooked joint with 
moulded fillet on the outside. This fillet 
may be worked on the solid as shown in the 
illustrations, but it is frequently nailed on. 
The glass is shown fixed in with beads from 
the outside. The bottom rail is prepared 
for the metal water bar, and a moulded 
weatherboard is fixed to it (see Figs. 1451 
and 1454). The fanlight is hung to the 





Fig. 1456. — Joint between Jamb and Head. 

transom to open inwards, as shown. The 
ground is ploughed to receive the tongue of 
the linings. It will be seen that this ground 
also forms a facing, thus representing part 




Fig. 1457. — Joint between 
Transom and Jamb. 



elliptical head, a pair of casements opening 
inwards, and a fanlight which, being hinged 
to the transom, also opens inwards if desired. 
Casements opening inwards are less fre- 
quently adopted than those opening out- 
wards. Objections to the former are that 
in exposed situations it is comparatively 
difficult to make them weather-tight ; while, 
if they are not kept securely fastened, they 
are apt to be blown open by a sudden gust 
of wind, when more or less serious damage 
may be done. They also interfere with the 
window hangings, furniture, ornaments, etc., 
which are often placed near windows. In 
spite of their obvious disadvantages, how- 
ever, inwardly opening casements are some- 
times adopted ; hence it has been deemed 
desirable to treat of a typical example here. 
The Frame. — The principal points in the 
construction of the frame are as follows. 
As will be seen from Figs. 1461 and 1463, 
the outside edge of the moulding has a large 
ovolo moulding worked on, while the inner 
edge is finished with an ogee. The jambs 
have tenons wedged into mortices in the 
oak sill, as illustrated in previous cases. 
The oak sill is rebated, throated, splayed, 
and weathered on the under edge 8 and 



WINDOW SASHES AND CASEMENTS. 



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448 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



ploughed to receive the tongue of the window 
board and the metal water bar as illustrated 
in section at a (Fig. 1462). Any moisture 
finding its way under the bottom rail of 



(Fig. 1462). The head is constructed in two 
thicknesses, each layer breaking joint as 
indicated at a b c (Fig. 1464). The jambs 
are cut to receive each thickness of the head 



Fig. 1461. — Horizontal Section 
through Casement. 



Fig- 




1464. — Construction of Head, and Method of 
Jointing with Jamb and Transom. 



the casements would drip into the throating 
of the sill, and for carrying off this moisture 
three or four holes should be bored from 
the throating to the weathering of the out- 
side bottom edge of the sill, as shown at b 



Fig. 1465.— Method of Jointing Soffit Lining and 
Jamb Lining. 

as shown at d (Fig. 1464). Mortices are 
prepared as indicated at c and d to receive 



WINDOW SASHES AND CASEMENTS. 



449 



( the tenons of the transom shown at e (Fig. 
j 1464). When the several pieces have been 
: fitted together satisfactorily, the pieces 
j forming the head are glued and screwed to- 
gether, the screws being inserted from the 
outside layer, behind the portion that will 
be hidden by the reveal of the arch. 

Casements and Fanlight. — The case- 
ments are ovolo-moulded inside, and re- 
bated on the outside for glass. The hang- 
ing stiles are ploughed with a round-edged 
plough iron, so as to fit over a weather-bead 
as shown at a (Fig. 1463). The meeting 
stiles are rebated, and have a hooked joint, 
and the edges are splayed to facilitate 
opening. The bottom rails of the casements 
j are rebated, and have a moulded weather - 
i board fixed on as shown at c (Fig. 1464). A 
I metal water bar is not shown, but the ar- 
rangement illustrated, in which the bar 
j is formed entirety in the wood, will be found 
! at once simple and quite effective. The prin- 
; cipal point to notice in the construction of 
I the fanlight is that the head is formed of 
! two or three pieces jointed and fixed to- 
gether with handrail screws or hammer- 
beaded keys. 

Grounds, Linings, and Architraves. — 
The grounds are of the usual form, and 
are fixed to the brickwork in the usual 
manner. They are clearly shown in the 
sections. The linings are square. In the 
case of painted work, the head pieces might 
be either formed of pieces jointed together 
and sawn out by a bandsaw to form the 
soffit, or else saw-kerfed. The latter method, 
however, is usually unsatisfactory. Un- 
doubtedly the better method is to have a 
veneer wide enough and long enough to 
bend over a cylinder prepared for this pur- 
pose, and to fit and glue on staves at the 
back. A portion of the lining prepared in 
this manner is shown at A (Fig. 1465). The 
whole process of preparing the soffit lining 
on this principle will be dealt with in a later 
section. The soffit lining and jamb lining 
are connected by grooves and a tongue, as 
illustrated at Fig. 1465. The head having 
been jointed with the jamb, the key-block 
c is between the blocks d and e ; and then 
by gluing the joint and inserting a pair of 
wedges, all is held firmly together. The 
wedges in the blocks should be cut so that 



the wedges press against f in the block c, 
and against the upper edges G of the blocks 
D and e. The architrave is made in two or 
three pieces, and prepared as explained in 
examples previously described. The window 
board has a tongue which fits into a groove 
in the frame as shown. The front edge has 
a rounded nosing, and is finished off with 
a moulding underneath as shown at d (Fig. 
1462). 

French Casements with Boxing 

Shutters to a Segmental = headed 

Opening. 

Fig. 1469 shows the half elevation of a 
casement opening with segmental head, 
fitted with a transom head with casements 
opening outwards. Figs. 1466 to 1468 
respectively represent the elevation, plan, 
and section, which show the inside of the 
frame, casements, fanlight, boxing shutters, 
architraves, etc., complete. The main di- 
mensions are figured on the illustrations. 

The Frame. — Mortice and tenon joints 
are used between the head and jambs, 
and also between the jambs and the tran- 
som. The intersection of the mouldings 
is formed by mitering. The jambs are 
ploughed with a rounded iron in the rebate, 
to receive a weathering bead, which is 
worked on the solid of the hanging stiles of 
the casements, as illustrated. The sill 
should be of oak or teak, but the material 
for the other parts may be of deal, pitch- 
pine, oak, mahogany, or teak, according to 
requirement or class of building. The 
general construction of the frame is shown 
in the illustrations, and reference to similar 
examples previously given will probably be 
found sufficient to render further descrip- 
tion superfluous. 

Casements. — In this example, as in others, 
only the parts being immediately dealt 
with are shown by the view representing 
the rod, the complete setting out of the 
rod, showing the frame, etc., being con- 
sidered superfluous for the purpose in hand. 
Fig. 1478 represents the height rod for the 
casements. Projected up from this is 
represented a stile (Fig. 1479), set out ready 
for mortising, rebating, and moulding. 
The stiles would be, of course, set out in 
pairs, the method of procedure being very 



450 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



i 




WINDOW SASHES AND CASEMENTS. 



451 



similar to that explained early in this so that they can be rebated and moulded 

i section when dealing with sashes. The in reasonable lengths. Fig. 1483 shows a 

lower portion of the stile is mortice-rebated, portion of the width rod for casements. 



Fig. 1470. — Enlarged Detail 

of Horizontal Section at A 

(Fig. 1467). 




6x2 



the moulding mitered ; and the inside 
shoulder and haunching, iormed so that it 
is so far completed to receive the rail, is 
shown at Fig. 1482. On account of the 
hooked joint between the meeting stiles, 
the top and bottom rails should have double 
tenons in breadth fitting to these stiles. 
When only single tenons are used, the 
short end-grain of the tenon is liable to break 
away when being formed into the hooked 
joint. For the hanging stiles, single tenons 
would be best, because of the -projection. 
Fig. 1480 represents a vertical bar set out for 
tenons and mortised. Fig. 1481 shows one 
strip of stuff set out for parts of the light 
b, c and d (Fig. 1466). When gauging for 
the mortices and tenons for the intersec- 
tion of the bars, it should be noted that the 
mortices and tenons are thinner where the 
bars intersect than where they join the 
stiles and rails. This is shown at b and e 
(Fig. 1473), and also where the bars are set 
out in Figs. 1480 to 1486, and 1491. By 
placing four strips together and setting them 
out, and then cramping them together as 
shown at Fig. 1491, the shoulders may be 
entered with a dovetail saw as indicated, 




6x2!4 



&A* 



Fig. 1471. — Enlarged Detail of Vertical Section 
at A, B, and C (Fig. 1468) 



452 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 




Fig. 1472.— Conventional Sectional View of Inside Top Left-hand Comer 



WINDOW SASHES AND CASEMENTS. 



453 



Projected above it, at Fig. 1484 (which shows 
the top rail completely set out), a top cross- 
bar is shown set out for mortices and tenons 
(Fig. 1485). A horizontal bar as at f (Fig. 
1466) is shown set out at Fig. I486. The 
ends A and b are afterwards dovetailed and 
mitered. Four of these bars will be required, 
and they should be set out together. The 
method of setting out and entering for the 
shoulders and tenons for the four bars form- 
ing the marginal square in the top of the 



Fig. 1489 shows a piece of the horizontal 
similarly prepared, with dovetail socket cut 
ready for completion as shown at Fig. 1477. 
Where the tongues of the bars mitre to- 
gether, they may be strengthened by cut- 
ting a chase as shown at a and b (Figs. 1475 
to 1477), and gluing in a small hardwood 
key. 




Fig. 1474. 



Figs. 1474 and 1475.— 
Elevation and Plan in- 
dicating Dovetail Joint 
at the Mitering of Bars 
as at A (Fig. 1466). 



Fig. 1475. 



Fig. 1473.— Details 
of Joints, Mitering, 
and Scribing be- 
tween Stiles, Rails, 
and Bars. 



Fig. 1477.— 

Mitering and 

Dovetail Socket 

of Horizontal 

Bar. 



Fig. 1476.— 
Mitering and Dove- 
tail Pin of Vertical 
Bar. 



casements is shown at Figs. 1488 and 1489. 
To make a good job of these four angle- 
joints of the marginal squares (one angle of 
which is lettered a, Fig. 1466), they should 
be dovetailed and mitered as shown by the 
enlarged elevation and plan (Figs. 1474 and 
1475), but the joint will be more clearly 
understood on reference to Figs. 1476 and 
1477. Fig. 1488 shows the setting out, the 
cutting of the dovetail pin, and the enter- 
ing of the shoulders of a bar ready for 
moulding (shown completed at Fig. 1476). 



Rebating and Moulding Sash Bars on 
the Sticking Board. — A short length of 
a suitable form of sticking board for the 
rebating and moulding of the bars is shown 
at Fig. 1490. It is made of a board 6 in. 
to 9 in. wide, and of any suitable length, 
the base being dovetail-keyed on the under 
side as indicated at d and e (Fig. 1490) to 
prevent warping. A rebate is made equal 
in depth to the rebate of the bar, so that 
the tongue may properly bed as shown at 
a whilst the opposite side is being rebated.. 



4:»4 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 




At f is shown a piece of bar in position for 
the first rebate. The strip c is ploughed 
so as exactly to fit the tongue of the bar 
whilst the sticking of the moulding is being 
done, as indicated at h and k. The rebate 
and plough grooves must vary according to 
the size of the bars being worked ; hence 
several sticking boards, each for a different 
size, will be found in most workshops. A 
stout screw is generally used for a stop, and 
the back end is held by a bench knife being 
driven into the cheek and board. In this 
example mitering is shown at the inter- 
section of the mouldings of the stiles and 
rails (see A B, Fig. 1473), and where the bars 
intersect with each other scribing is illus- 
trated, as at d and e (Fig. 1473). 

Fanlight. — The only point that calls 
for special attention in this is that both 
the head and the curved marginal bar 
may be got out in one piece. 

Fitting the Casements. — The meeting 
stiles are rebated, splayed, and hooked 
together as shown by the section (Fig. 1470). 
When this joint is found to be satisfactory, 
the bead on the inside to break the joint 
is worked, and the moulded weathering 
ploughed for and fitted in. The top and 
bottom of the casements have next to be 
fitted to the head and sill, the bottom rail 
being rebated and throated as shown. The 
casements are now placed together, with their 
meeting stiles fitting, and the width between 
the rebates of the frame accurately- marked 
off on the hanging stiles at the top and 
bottom. The hanging stiles are next re- 
bated, sufficient being left on to form the 
projecting weathering beads, which are 
rounded as shown. Then the stiles are 
applied to the frame, and the necessary 
easing is done, so as to produce a good fit. 
Between the meeting stiles, the hanging 
stiles, and the frame a sufficient joint must 
be provided to allow for painting or polish- 
ing, and for easy opening and closing, with- 
out any binding. The outside of the bottom 
rails are ploughed (the plough groove ex- 
tending to the edge of the stiles) to receive 
a moulded weatherboard, as shown a tA 
(Fig. 1471). This should be secured with 
screws, the joining parts being first painted. 
Each casement is hung with three 4-in. 
wrought-iron or brass butt hinges. The 



WINDOW SASHES AND CASEMENTS. 



455 



most suitable forms of fastening are espagno - 
lette bolts. 

Boxing Shutters. — The arrangement of 



Pig. 1482. — Lower Portion of One 

Stile completed to Receive 

Bottom Rail and Bar. 



Fig. 1485.— 

Top Cross Bar 

Set Out for 

Mortising and 

Tenoning. 




Fig. 1487.— Part of Top Rail Mortised. 

I the shutters when in their boxings is shown 
by Fig. 1467. At b in Fig. 1466, the right- 
hand half is indicated by dotted lines as 
closed. The wall being hollow, and thus 
thick, allows a sufficient recess for the 



Fig. 1488 



Figs. 1488 and 1489. — Ends of Bars for Marginal 
Square. 

shutters to be formed of four leaves. In the 
case of thinner walls, six or even eight leaves 
might be used. The shutters may be made 
to open and close in one length, which would 



456 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



include the panels h, k, and l, or may open 
and close in two sections. The lower part, 



panels k and l, the bottom edges of the 
leaves being rebated at o on the back so as 





containing the panel H, is closed first, the 
upper edge having a rebate and bead as 
shown at o. The upper part contains the 



to fit against the lower part. Generally the 
fanlight is left free, and thus the framing 
at m is dummy. The bottom ends of the 



WINDOW SASHES AND CASEMENTS. 



457 




Fig. 1492. 



Fig. 1494. 




Fig. 1492. — Inside 
Elevation of Ellip- 
tical-headed Sash 
Window. 

Fig. 1493.— Hori- 
zontal Section. 

Fig. 1494.— Verti- 
cal Section on A B 
(Fig. 1492). 



20 



458 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



Fig. 1495.— 
Enlarged Detail of 
Horizontal Section. 




the bottom. The sashes are- 
shown with marginal bars,, 
which, though they are now not 
usually adopted for windows of 



shutters are kept off the floor as shown at 
n (Figs. 1466 and 1471), to allow for clear- 
ing the carpet or rugs, etc. The stiles and 
rails of the shutters are mortised and tenoned 
together to receive bead-and-butt or bead- 
and-flush panels, facing the outside when 
they are closed, and moulded on the inside as 
shown. The setting out and general pre- 
paration of these panels is almost exactly 
the same as in door-making. After being 
wedged up and cleaned off, they are rebated 
and fitted together. The main leaf is hung 
to the posts of the door frame as indicated 
at Figs. 1467 and 1470. The two leaves are 
hung together by back flap hinges. The 
particular casings partly forming the box- 
ings are shown at Figs. 1467, 1470, and 1472. 
The curved stiles for the frame soffit may be 
worked in the solid out of one piece. The 
panels being very slightly curved, it would 
certainly be the more simple way to work 
these out of the solid. 

Elliptical = headed Window with 
Framed and Splayed Linings. 

Figs. 1492 to 1494 represent the inside 
elevation, plan, and vertical section of an 
elliptical-headed window with double-hung 
sashes, cased frame, framed panels, splayed 
linings, soffit, and window back with elbows. 
The inside of the opening is finished with 
architrave mouldings, with plinth blocks at 



Fig. 1496.— 
Enlarged Detail 
of Vertical 
Section. 



this class, may be conveniently introduced 
here with the object of illustrating and ex- 
plaining the method of bending curved sash 
bars. The preparing of the stuff, setting out. 
mortising, tenoning,, and other processes in. 



WINDOW SASHES AND CASEMENTS. 



459 



the making of the frame and sashes, being 
generally identical with cases previously 
treated, it is here only necessary to describe 
the new features. 

Construction of Elliptical Head of Sash 
Frame. — This may be made in two or three 
pieces, cut out of the solid, jointed a little 
above the springing, and fastened, as shown 
at Fig. 1498, with screws. The crown joints 
or radial joints (as the case may be) are fas- 
tened by dowelling or handrail screws. In 



side, and planed true with a compass plane. 
The pieces to form the parting bead should 
be similarly treated. The head just above 
the springing is secured to the pulley stiles 
with screws as indicated at e (Fig. 1498). 
It will be seen that the head does not finish 
at the springing, but at a sufficient distance 
above to allow of \ in. projection, as at f 
(Figs. 1497 and 1498). This is to allow the 
stiles of the sashes to butt against and pre- 
vent the bottom sash becoming jammed. 




Fig. 1497.— Portion of Soffit of Head 
of Frame, and its Junction with 
Face of Pulley Stile. 



this method a plough groove is worked out 
of the solid to receive the parting bead, 
which also is worked out of the solid. Another 
method, which is equally good, is to form 
the head in three laminations, as represented 
in section at a (Fig. 1496), and also by a, b, 
and c in the conventional views (Figs. 1497 
and 1498), where it will be seen that the 
thickness on the inside of the parting bead 
may be made of three pieces round the 
curve, and the portion of the parting bead 
also of three pieces, while the outer por- 
tion is made of four pieces. These pieces 
should be accurately sawn out on the soffit 




Fig. 1498.— Method of 

Connecting Head and 

Pulley Stiles, etc. 



Elliptical-headed Linings. — These are 
got out of the solid in two or three 
pieces, which are jointed together and 
connected to each other, and to the straight 
linings, by cross tongues (see Fig. 1498). 
The joints are, of course, glued, and the 
linings are nailed on in the usual manner. 
The head linings are glued and blocked as 
represented at Fig. 1498. The inside head 
linings may be ploughed to receive the 
tongue of the soffit, so as to correspond with 
the straight inside linings. 

Elliptical Head of Sash. — This is made 
of three pieces, the joints occurring as at 



460 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 





Fig. 1499. — Conventional View of Part 
of Stile and Head of Top Sash. 



Fig. 1500. — General View of Cylinder. 




Fig. 1501. — Connecting Architrave and Plinth 
with Slip Dovetail Tenon. 



-Method of Connecting Architrave and 
Plinth by Dovetail Lapping. 



d, e, I (Fig. 1492). The joints, and por- 
tions of the head and the stile showing 
the joint at the crown separately, are 
shown at a, b, and c (Fig. 1499). The pro- 
jecting shoulder d (Fig. 1499) is for butting 
against the stop of the head, shown at 
Fig. 1498. 

The Arch or Cot Bar. — This may be 
formed of two pieces and worked out of the 
solid, joints occurring at the crown and a 
little below the springing ; but a more 
satisfactory job results when the bar is made 



WINDOW SASHES AND CASEMENTS. 



461 



in one continuous piece to meet with the 
two marginal bars a and c (Fig. 1492). A 
rib or cylinder round which to bend the bar 
must be specially made. A suitable form 
for this purpose is illustrated at Fig. 1500, 
where it is shown constructed of two thick- 
nesses. The strip of wood for the bar should 
be obtained as straight-grained as possible, 
and should either be steamed or be soaked 
in boiling water, steaming yielding the better 
results. Then, by means of hand screws, 
the strip of wood should be gradually bent 
round and fastened to the cylinder as illus- 




Fig. 1503.— Elevation of Circular Bull's-eye 
Frame with Central Sash. 

trated. A piece of hoop-iron bent round 
with it on the outside will be found useful 
in preventing fibres of the wood from burst- 
ing out. When the bars are thick, it is a 
good plan to form them of two thicknesses, 
gluing them together as they are bent round 
the cylinder. It is best to let the strips re- 
main on the cylinder a few days, so that they 
may become thoroughly set to shape ; and, 
on taking off, they should be kept to their 
shape by means of a couple of stretchers. 
They can then be rebated and moulded. 
It is not necessary to weaken the cot bar 
by mortising for tenons of radial bars, as 
these latter need only be scribed to fit the 
cot bar, and then each one secured by a fine 



long screw inserted through the cot bar. 
It is more satisfactory if these bent bars 
are of straight-grained oak, ash, or other 
hardwood that is pliable. Two methods of 
connecting the architraves with the plinths 
by dovetailing are illustrated at Figs. 1501 
and 1502. After the joints are made satis- 
factory, the parts will be glued and screwed 
together. 

Circular BulPs=Eye Frame with 

Square Centre Sash Hung on 

Centres. 

Figs. 1503 and 1504 show, respectively, 
the elevation and the vertical section of 



,' -OB 



Fig. 1504.— Vertical 

Section through A B 

(Fig. 1503). 




1505. — Enlarged 
Detail at B 
(Fig. 1503). 



a circular bull's-eye frame which is moulded 
inside and out. The elevation is divided by 
four stout bars, the bars forming the centre 
square being in two parts, rebated together 
so as to form a square sash, which is hung on 
centres as illustrated in the section (Fig. 
1504), the construction being shown more 
clearly in the conventional sectional view at 
Fig. 1506. The frame is constructed of 
four pieces, as indicated at Fig. 1503. The 
joints may be held together with handrail 
screws and dowels, or with hammer-headed 
keys and tongues. The bars are moulded 
and scribed to intersect with the mouldings 



462 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



of the frame, and connected by mortice-and- 
tenon joints. The inside of the bars a, b, c, 
and D are not moulded, but are rebated and 
slightly splayed, so as to facilitate the open- 
ing and closing of the sash (see a b in sec- 
tion, Fig. 1504, and see also Fig. 1505). The 
sash is made of four pieces, which are re- 
bated and splayed, and fit the bars just 
mentioned, which ? are moulded so that when 




Fig. 1506. — Dovetail Jointing 
at Angle of Sash 



the sash is closed it completes the appear- 
ance of four bars as shown. The four pieces 
forming the sash, being of slight thickness, 
must be dovetailed and mitered as shown 
(Fig. 1506). If additional strengthening is 
considered desirable at the angles, four thin 
brass brackets may be let in flush, screwed 
on as shown. The rebates of the vertical 
bars to meet those on the stiles of the sash 
are on the inside of the upper portion as at 
A, and on the outside of the lower half as at 
b (Fig. 1507). The hanging of the sashes on 
pivots is similar to that explained and illus- 
trated in the next example. 

Sash Hung on Pivots. 

A solid frame with weathered, throated, 
and sunk sill, and sash hung on pivots, is 
shown as closed, and also as opened, by ver- 



tical section at Fig. 1508. The point call- 
ing for special attention is the setting out 
of the cutting of the beads so as to allow of 
these cuts properly clearing as the sash is 




opened or closed. When setting out the rod, 
have at least a portion of the sash opened 
to the full extent required, the beads being 
included, as indicated at a b (Fig. 1508). 
Where the outer edges of the beads on the. 
sash when opened intersect with the lines 
of the beads fixed to the frame as at c and d, 
between these two points draw the line c d ; 
draw c f, and c e at right angles to c d, and 
then c d and d f are the lines of the cuts for 



WINDOW SASHES AND CASEMENTS. 



463 



the beads fixed to the frame. With centre 
G and radii G and d, determine the points 
h and k. Again with G as centre, and e and 
f as radii, determine the points l and m. 
Then clearly h l and k m are the splays for 
the beads fixed to the sash ; and when the 
sash is closed this would meet c e and f d 
respectively. When the pivot is fixed on the 
frame, and the slotted plate on the stile of 
the sash, a small chase has to be made in 
each stile, as indicated by the dotted lines 
from G to m. When the pivots are screwed 
on to the stiles, then the chases have to be 
made in the frame. In order that the head 
of the sash shall not bind as it is opened, the 
head should be prepared a little out of the 
square, as illustrated. 

Circle = on = Circle Sashes and Frames. 

Fig. 1510 represents a horizontal section 
(looking up) showing the soffit of arch, sash, 



lower half of each outside lining must be 
movable, so that the sashes may be placed 
in position from the outside. The sashes 
are therefore troublesome to hang, and 




frame, linings, etc., and Fig. 1511 represents 
a part outside and part inside elevation of an 
upper portion of an opening, with a cased 
frame and double-hung sashes, for a window 
which is semicircular in elevation and circu- 
lar on plan. This is commonly known 
as circle-on-circle work. Sometimes frames 
of this description are made with the faces 
of their pulley stiles radiating as shown 
by the lines a and b (Fig. 1509). When 
this method is adopted, the sashes cannot 
be inserted into their positions from the 
inside. The projecting portion of the 



Fig. 1508. — Vertical 
Section of a Solid 
Frame with Sash 
or Casement hung 
on Pivots. 



the renewal of sash lines is difficult. The 
most common method of constructing these 
sashes is illustrated at Figs. 1510 and 1511, 
which show the geometrical setting out for 
obtaining moulds, bevels, etc., for the head 
of the frame and the head of the sash. The 
outer arris of the soffit of the arch is a 
semicircle (a b, Fig. 1511), and therefore 



464 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



the inner arris becomes elliptical, as shown 
by c b (Fig. 1511). On x y (Fig. 1513) 
set up the elevation of the curve c' b', the 
same as c b (Fig. 1511). This is the line 



between the head and the pulley stile. 
Mark off any convenient points on c', b', 
as m', n', o', p' (Fig. 1513). Project these 
down to the plan (Fig. 1514), giving the 





Fig. 1512.— Enlarged 

Horizontal Section 

through Sash Stile 

and Frame. 



Fig. 1510. — Horizontal Section of 
Fig. 1511. 



Fig. 1509. — Plan of Circle-on-Circle 

Sash Frame, with Radiating Pulley 

Stiles. 

elevation of the frame, and also the top 
edge of the sash. Projecting down, draw 
the half plan of soffit shown by Fig. 1514. 
The thickness of the head may be drawn 
in as shown by the lines d', e', f', g', h'. 
The breadth of the sash may also be drawn 
in, as indicated by k' i/ ; also the connection 



plans of the generators of the soffit c, m, 
n, o, p, b. The soffit mould can now be 
obtained. At right angles to the projector 
Q c r , draw a line q s (Fig. 1515), and along 
it mark off q, 5, 6, 7, 8 — respectively c', m', 
n', o', p', b' (Fig. 1513). Then, projecting 
at right angles from the points on the 



WINDOW SASHES AND CASEMENTS. 



465 



line Q s (Fig. 1515), and then from m, n, o, p, 
and B (Fig. 1514), parallel to q s, the points 
m, n, o, p, and b (Fig. 1515) are obtained. 
Through these intersections the curve may 
be drawn in as shown. The soffit mould 
may be completed by obtaining points 
and drawing the curve q t, and also for 
the head of sash by u v. 

Face Moulds for Head of Frame. — For 
the face mould for the head of the frame, 
join the points Q R in plan ; and where 
the plans of the generators m, n, o, p, 
and b cross this line, as in points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 
draw ordinates at right angles to q r, making 
these the same lengths as the ordinates 
m', n', o r , p', and b' in elevation (Fig. 1513). 
Then the curve may be drawn in. 

Face Moulds for Head of Sash. — It is 
here assumed that the stiles of the upper 
sash will continue part of the way into 
the head, and then there will be a joint 
as shown at w (Fig. 1513). There will be 
then a crown joint as represented at i/. 
By projecting down from w, to the tangent 
line drawn from c, and also from q, and 



shows the thickness of the plank required. 
Projected above are shown the surface 
of the plank and the application of the face 
mould. By cutting square through the plank 
and making the surface L M horizontal, 
the bevel can be applied as represented 
at b c in plan. By cutting square through 
and level at n f, the bevel can be applied, 
and then the face mould can be used for 
marking the other surfaces of the plank 



Fig. 1513 



Figs. 1513 to 1515 — 
Geometrical Setting Out. 



drawing ordinates at right angles to this 
tangent line and making them equal in 
length to the corresponding ones in eleva- 
tion (Fig. 1513), the face mould from the 
springing to the joint w can be drawn 
as shown at a (Fig. 1514). From the face 
mould shown at b (Fig. 1514), draw the 
tangent line 10. Then where the plans 
of the generators meet this line, project 
up ordinates, and then the face mould b 
can be obtained as previously explained, 
the joints being shown at c w and b'. 

Preparing the Head. — Probably the most 
satisfactory way of making the head of 
the sash frame is to prepare it in two pieces 
out of the solid, with a joint at the crown, 
held together by one or two handrail 
screws, and fitting into laps made into the 
pulley stiles as illustrated at Fig. 1517. 
At Fig. 1516, half the plan of the soffit 
is represented by dotted curved lines, 
and the rhomboid a, b, c, d enclosing it 

20* 




Fig. 1515. r § - - - 1 



Fig. 1514 



as shown by the dotted lines f. Assuming 
that the two pieces to form the head have 
been sawn out, and the soffit planed true 
to the face-mould lines, the joints made, 
and the head fitted and screwed to the 
pulley stiles as shown at Fig. 1517, the 
soffit mould can be applied and the soffit 
lined out as illustrated. In order to keep 
the pulley stiles equidistant from each 
other until the linings are fixed, the 
curved stretcher should be temporarily 
fixed to the head of the stiles as represented 
at Fig. 1517. If the sill has been prepared 
to the proper curve when the superfluous 



466 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



wood is planed oil the head, a long 
straightedge should fit on the sill, stretcher, 
and head, in all positions such that it is 
parallel to the pulley stiles. 

Inside and Outside Linings. — In pre- 
paring these, it will involve a little more 




to the lines. Then the pieces should be 
accurately jointed, tongued, glued, and 
blocked in position, and the surface of 
the inside lining smoothed off so as to fit 
a straightedge applied to the sill and the 
lining, as explained in connection with 
Fig. 1517. For the outside lining, only a 
little more than the seen margin need be 
cleaned off, if it is to fit against brickwork ; 
but in the case of fitting against masonry, 
a fair amount of accuracy would be necessary 
in cleaning off. The edge of the outside 
lining must be worked so as to project 
the proper distance from the soffit, and 
then moulded, if moulding is shown and 
specified ; the edge of the inside lining, 
of course, finishing flush. The parting 



Fig. 1516.— Application of Bevel and 
Face Mould for Head of Frame. 




labour, but will make a much more satis- 
factory job, if the joint, instead of being 
at the springing, is made some little dis- 
tance above it, as illustrated at Fig. 1518. 
This will keep the frame more rigid, and 
the pulley stiles parallel to each other. 
So as not to have the grain of the other 
parts of the head linings too short, it will 
be necessary for them to be in two pieces. 
It will be found the simplest plan to have 
the stuff thick enough to work the inside 
surface to fit the head, and from this to 
gauge full for the outside, and rough off 



bead will have to be in three or four pieces, 
and is cut off a thin board to the proper 
curve, and may be bent sideways into the 
plough groove, being then glued in position. 
Preparing the Head of Sash. — By refer- 
ence to the plan Fig. 1509 and the enlarged 
detail Fig. 1512, it will be seen that the 
stiles are not square in section, but these 
of course would be worked to a bevel set 
to the angle u, c, n (Fig. 1514). By refer- 
ence to Fig. 1513, it will be seen that part 
of the bead and a straight stile are formed 
in one ; and the face mould for the curved 



WINDOW SASHES AND CASEMENTS. 



467 



part is shown at a (Fig. 1514). The face 
mould is applied to each side of the plank 
in a similar manner to that explained for 
the head of the frame (Fig. 1516). It will be 
seen that a portion of the head w to T 
(Fig. 1513) is shown in the plan (Fig. 1514) 
as enclosed by a parallelogram, which 
shows the thickness of the stuff required. 
The face mould is applied to each side of 
the stuff by using a bevel set to the angle 
shown at b (Fig. 1514). The next process 
is to true up the top edges, apply the falling 
mould plane nearly to the lines, and then 
fit each piece to the frame in its proper 
position, when the joints should be made 
and bolted together. The meeting rail is 
of course of the curve shown in plan, but 
in other respects it is dovetailed to the 
stiles as explained for previous examples. 
If all fits in square, the next thing will be 
to mould and rebate the head and stiles. 
As the section of the moulding varies 
round the head, it should be formed by 
small rebate planes and hollows of compass 
pattern. 

Guard Beads. — Up the sides, these are 
of the ordinary pattern, the edge of the 
sash being planed off so that the joint 
between it and the guard bead is square 
to the pulley stile, as will be seen by refer- 



ence to Fig. 1512. The guard bead to 
the soffit may be in sections worked out 
of the solid, which will be found the easier 
method ; but, alternatively, this could be 
bent in a square state, and moulded after- 
wards ; but this method of course would 
be more expensive, and would involve the 
construction of a special cylinder on which 
to bend it. Fig. 1518 is a conventional 
view of a portion of the head of the frame 
from the outside. It will be seen that 
the back of the splay lining is represented 
as formed of a veneer with staves jointed 
and glued at the back. The development 
and construction of this will be treated 
of in a subsequent section. Of course 
there are other ways of constructing the 
frame, such as building it up in three 
thicknesses, the middle thickness forming 
the parting bead ; but as the head would 
practically be formed of two separate 
parts extra, twice the amount of setting 
out would be necessary, and therefore, 
though a little stuff might be saved, a 
greater expenditure of time would be in- 
volved. In superior polished work, the 
head would be constructed of a veneer and 
staves at the back. In this case, of course 
a special cylinder would have to be made 
on which to bend and block the veneer. 



MOULDINGS: WORKING AND SETTING THEM OUT. 



Introduction. — A moulding is a curved sur- 
face whose section is continuous. The 
essentials of a good moulding, apart from 



suitability of design, are, that its surfaces 
shall be perfectly regular and smooth, its 
edges sharp, and its curves flowing and 




Fig. 1542. 



Fig. 1539. 



Fig. 



1519. — Parting Bead. Fig. 1520. — Quirked Bead. Fig. 1521. — Angle or Returned Bead (when 
of Large Section, generally known as a Staff Bead). Fig. 1522. — Section of Bead or Round 
frequently Fixed as a Staff Bead. Fig. 1523.— Staff or Angle Bead. Fig. 1524.— Cavetto 
Quirked Ogee and Bead Architrave. Fig. 1525. — Astragal and Fillets. Fig. 1526. — Cyma 
Recta, or Reverse Ogee, with Fillet and Ogee Cornice Moulding. Fig. 1527. — Quirked Grecian 
Ogee Panel Moulding. Fig. 1528. — Quirked Ogee and Bead Moulding. Fig. 1529. — Quirked 
Ovolo and Fillet. Fig. 1530. — Quirked Ovolo and Bead. Fig. 1531. — Ordinary or Grecian 
Ovolo. Fig. 1532.— Roman Ovolo. Fig. 1533.— Lamb's Tongue. Fig. 1534.— Torus. Fig. 

1535. — Double Torus. Fig. 1536. — Grecian Ogee Base or Architrave Moulding. Fig. 1537. — 

Nosing. Fig. 1538. — Scotia. Fig. 1539. — Double Face Architrave, Fig. 1540. — Bolection. 

Figs. 1541 and 1542.— " Thumb." 

468 



MOULDINGS : WORKING AND SETTING THEM OUT. 



469 



without perceptible break. In the hand 
manufacture of mouldings, the above re- 
quirements are obtained by the employ- 
ment of planes and routers of suitable con- 
tour, and by the careful cleaning off of the 
surfaces with glasspaper, wound round 
rubbers of wood or cork. Hand manufacture 
has now given place largely to machine work, 
the vertical spindle moulding machine pro- 
ducing mouldings cheaply and well. 

Varieties of Common Mouldings. 

Common mouldings used in joinery in- 
clude those shown on p. 468. It may be 
said that bead is a general term applied to 
small mouldings of circular section. Quirked 
bead is a small moulding semicircular in 



in Figs. 1543 to 1545. Bead planes are made 
in sets of nine, from J in. to 1 in., increasing 
in size by T V in. up to \ in., and thereafter 
by J- in. The better makes of these tools 
have the working faces in boxwood, the 
body of the plane being in beech, and the 
smaller sizes are " slipped " — that is, one 
side of the plane is rebated, and a loose slip 
fitted in and secured with screws, the object 
being to enable the tool to be worked down 
into a rebate or over a projecting surface, 
such as the bead on the edge of the bottom 
moulding shown in Fig. 1546. Figs. 69 and 
70 on p. 15 are end views of the stocks of 
a pair of hollows and rounds, with sections 
of the mouldings produced by them. These 
are made in sets of nine pairs, their curves 




Fig. 1550 



Fig. 1548. Fig. 1549. 




Fig. 1545. Fig. 1546. Fig. 1547. 
Figs. 1543 to 1546.— Beads. Fig. 1547.— Reeding Plane 



Fig. 1551. 

Figs. 1548 and 1549.— Thumb Hollow. 
Figs. 1550 and 1551.— Curved Thumb Rebate Plane. 



section, stuck level with a surface, and 
separated from it by a groove known as a 
quirk (see Fig. 1520). Return bead and 
staff bead have quirks on adjacent surfaces, 
generally meeting at right angles (see Figs. 
1521 and 1523), but occasionally at obtuse 
and acute angles. The terms return bead 
and staff bead generally include all beads 
that are at an angle ; but beads of small 
section are often distinguished as return 
beads, and those of larger section as staff 
beads. In the North of England the inside 
f -in. bead to sash frames is frequently called 
a staff bead, whereas in London and the 
South of England it is generally known as 
an inside bead or guard bead. 

Planes for Straight Moulding. 

Figs. 66 to 68 on p. 14 show a bead plane and 
its cutter or " iron," a typical example of a 
tool for producing such beads as are shown 



being portions of circles whose radii increase 
by \ in. Figs. 71 and 72 on p. 15 are sash 
moulding planes, named respectively ovolo 
and lamb's-tongue ; such planes are made 
in pairs, one to follow the other, and in three 
sizes, namely, Jin., fin., and fin., these being 
the distances the moulding works on the 
edge of the stuff, the respective depths being 



m. 



im. 



and yV in. Fig. 73, p. 15, 



is a 



cabinet-maker's ogee moulding plane, which 
may be had in four sizes, from | in. to 1 J in. 
These, in common with most moulding 
planes, require holding at an angle of about 
20° with the side of the stuff being worked, 
the line shown on the fore end of the plane 
being kept vertical, or in line with the sur- 
face, against which the fence of the plane 
works. Beads, on the contrary, are always 
held upright when being worked. Fig. 1547 
is a reeding plane, which may be made for 
two, three, and five reeds, the one illustrated 



470 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



being a three-reed plane. They are usually 
slipped similarly to the beads, and for the 
same reasons, and in some the fence is mov- 
able so that the margin may be varied. 
Fluting planes, the converse of these, are 
also made, but are not much used, as the 
work can be done equally well with rounds. 
The foregoing are the principal planes for 
working straight mouldings, but there are 





Fig. 1552. Fig. 1553. Fig. 1554. 

Figs. 1552 to 1554. — Scratch Tool and Scratches. 

in addition a few special moulding planes 
used by joiners, such as shop-front lamb's- 
tongue, stair-nosing, and scotia planes ; 
these, however, are not likely to be of 
general service. 

Tools for Shaped Mouldings. 

Thumb Hollows and Rounds. — Figs. 1548 
and 1549 show respectively an end and a side 
view of a thumb hollow for working rounds 
on curved work, and a complete set can be 
had matching the set of ordinary hollows, 
and also rounds ; however, with a little 
ingenuity in their use, three or four can be 
made to work almost every imaginable curve. 
They are generally made of some very hard 
wood, such as box, ebony, and lignum vitse, 
and are from 2 in. to 4 in. long, 2 in. deep, 
and from | in. to f in. thick. The irons 
may be purchased as blanks from the tool- 
dealers, or may be easily made from a piece 
of sheet steel. 

Curved Thumb Rebate Plane.— Figs. 1550 
and 1551 are side and plan views of a curved 
thumb rebate plane ; these planes are made 
to various sweeps and thicknesses, and are 
very useful in working rebates and squares 
on curved work. These rebates are also 
made with circular soles, as in Fig. 1549. 
The thumb planes above mentioned would 
be indispensable for making work of double 
curvature, a good example of which is 



given at Figs. 1283 and 1286, pp. 394 and 
395. 

Scratch Tools.— Scratch tools (Fig. 1552) 
are much used by wood-workers and joiners 
for working small mouldings on sweep work, 
and occasionally on straight work also. They 
consist of small pieces of hardwood sunk at 
one end, to form a fence, and with a slot or 
saw-kerf to receive the cutter or scratch, 
which is gripped tightly in the slot by means 
of a wood screw turned into the end of the 
stock. The scratch is a piece of thin hard 
steel fi^ed up to an exact reverse of the 
moulding it is desired to produce. It is 
then rubbed square across with an oilstone 
slip to remove the file marks, and finally 
the edge is turned with a bradawl or 
scraper — that is, the bradawl is rubbed 
very firmly along the edge until a sharp 
burr is produced on each side ; this burr 
forms the cutting edge, and is, of course, 
soon worn away, especially on hard wood. 
The proper formation of this burr is the 
secret of producing good work with the 
scratch. Figs. 1553 and 1554 are views of 
two steel scratches, the one shown in the 
stock in Fig. 1552 being a sash ovolo. In 
using the scratch, the cutter should not be 
projected the full depth at first, but after 
some of the surplus wood has been removed 
it is pushed out to its proper projection, the 




Fig. 1555. 




Figs. 



Fig. 1556. 
1555 and 1556.— Scratch Tools. 



correct amount being shown by a file mark 
on the face. As much as possible of the 
surplus wood should be removed with 
gouge, chisel, or plane, as may be most 
convenient, and the scratch is then rubbed 
backwards and forwards a few inches at a 
time until it is down, a final rub continu- 
ously through the length being given with a 






MOULDINGS : WORKING AND SETTING THEM OUT. 



471 



sharp scratch. Figs. 1555 and 1556 show re- 
spectively a side and an under-edge view of 
a scratch tool as supplied by tool-dealers. 
This is about 8 in. long, and is made of beech, 
with turned handles and a boxwood mov- 
able fence, one face being square, the other 
round ; into the fence a slotted brass plate 
is let, through which a screw slides, giving 
about 1 in. adjustment, and more can be 
obtained by re-entering the screw. The fence 
is also slotted slightly to pass over the cutter, 
which prevents side movement when work- 
ing, the cutter being secured by a set screw 




Fig. 1557. — Quirk Routers. 



B A 



this part forms a cutter for removing the 
core. The circular hole inside the cutting 
edges is to receive the dust or shaving 
removed in the stroke, and the tool requires 
repeated lifting from the cut to clear this 
throat. Figs. 1561 and 1562 illustrate a 
home-made quirk router that will in many 
cases prove quite as serviceable as the more 
elaborate shop-made article. A block of 
hardwood, about 2 in. long by f in. square, 
is grooved across one face (see Figs. 1561 
and 1562) to receive the cutter, which should 
fit tightly. This is a piece of saw blade, y 1 ^ 
in. thick, If in. long, and f in. wide, with a 
}-in. slot in it ; a stout J-in. wood screw 
passing through this slot secures the cutter 
at any height desired. A movable fence, 
made of a slip of hardwood f in. by § in. 



Fig. 

1558. 





Fig. 1559. 



Fig. 1561. 



Fig. 1562. 



Fig, 1563. 



Figs. 1558 to 1560.— Cutter. Figs. 1561 and 1562.— Quirk Router. Fig. 1563.— Cutting Gauge. 



at the side. This tool is useful on larger 
mouldings, and is shown with a two -reed 
scratch in it. 

Quirk Routers. — Quirk routers (Fig. 1557) 
are made of malleable iron, and have adjust- 
able fences of various shapes, with a pair of 
clips and thumbscrew for holding the cutter. 
Three views of the latter, to a larger scale, 
are given in Figs. 1558 to 1560. This tool 
is used primarily for cutting quirks for beads 
and other mouldings, but is also very handy 
for sinking grooves in any curved work 
where a plough would not be available ; it 
is used similarly to the scratch tool. The 
cutter (Fig. 1559) is made of sheet steel, from 
T V in. to T \ in. thick, the ends forming 
parts of two concentric circles, one slightly 
larger than the other. The larger one a, 
filed to a V section, as shown in Fig. 1560, 
forms the gauge or side cutter of the pro- 
posed groove, and must always be on the 
front or forward side of the tool, but the 
side b is filed square to a chisel edge, and 



Fig. 1564. Fig. 1565. 

Figs. 1564 and 1565.— Thumb Mould. 

by 2 J in., is secured to the stock with a 
couple of round-headed screws, which pass 
through two small slots in the fence. This 
proves a very efficient tool for inlaying 
strings in marqueterie work. 

Cutting Gauge. — This tool is illustrated 
at Fig. 1563, and is used for cutting 
the edges of the various members of a 
moulding, more especially when working 
them across the grain, the object being to 
obtain a clean-cut edge. The small mov- 
able cutter can be adjusted to various 
depths and taken out for sharpening on 
the oilstone. When using it, the flat 
face of the cutter must always be turned 
towards the side on which the clean edge 
is desired. 



472 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



Working- Thumb Mould. 

To work a thumb mould (Figs. 1564 and 
1565) on the edge of a table or sideboard top, 
first square up the edges to the required 
size, then with the cutting gauge set to 
the breadth of the moulding, gauge a 
line on the top all round. Next set a 
plough to a shaving less than the gauge 
mark and to the exact depth of the sinking 
required, as shown by the dotted lines in 




Fig. 1570. 



Fig. 1566.— Ogee Panel Mould. 

Fig. 1567. — Working Ogee Panel Mould. 

Fig. 1568. — Working Bolection Mould. 

Fig. 1569. — Cornice Mould. 

Fig. 1570. — Working Cornice Mould. 

Fig. 1565, and work this on the two side 
edges of the top. Then fix a straightedge 
to the gauge line across the end by means 
of two handscrews or clips, and run in a 
tenon saw to the requisite depth. Again run 
in the saw ; then the plough may be worked 
across the ends to remove the core to the 
proper depth. Chamfer off with the jack 
plane as indicated by a b, Fig. 1565, and, 
selecting two hollows of suitable size, work 
the larger one down first. Then turn 'the 
top up on edge and finish off the curve 



with the smaller one. The side moulds 
should be worked first, and a mitre line 
drawn on each end with a mitre template, 
the end moulds being then worked down to 
this line, as the shape of the mould cannot 
well be marked on the moulded edges. 

Working Ogee Panel Moulding. 

In Fig. 1566 the dotted outline represents 
the end of the board on the edge of which 
the moulding is to be stuck, and the full 
line is the shape of the moulding which 
should be marked on each end by means of 
a pattern template. For this the ends of 
the board should be planed and rubbed 
over with chalk, so that the pencil line 
shall show clearer. Having shot the edge 
of the board straight and square, gauge the 
edge to the required thickness from the face, 
and try up the back. Set the plough with 
No. 1 iron and plough the grooves as 
indicated at 1, 2, 3, and 4 (Fig. 1566) to 
the distance on of the sticking as shown 
at 1. The core between grooves 2 and 
3 can be removed with a chisel and 
levelled with a rebate plane, when the 
board will have the appearance shown in 
Fig. 1567. Next work off the salient angles 
of the core in a series of chamfers with the 
rebate plane as indicated by the dotted 
lines, and with a suitable round work out 
the hollow part of the moulding. A re- 
verse of the template, cut out of card or 
thin wood, is useful for testing the depth. 
Begin the round with a suitable hollow. 
If the hollow will not work on the off side 
quite down to the bottom of the quirk, 
a snipe-bill plane must be employed to 
finish. This is specially for working in the 
quirks of mouldings. 

Working Bolection Moulding. 

To work a bolection moulding (Fig. 1546, 
p. 469), a piece out of which the mould 
is to be produced should be planed up 
accurately to size all round first and 
grooves run in as indicated by the dotted 
lines till it assumes the shape of Fig. 
1568. Work the return bead on the front 
edge, removing the side slip for that pur- 
pose. Then the upper round or astragal 
should be worked, and two thin marking 
slips prepared exactly the width of the two 



MOULDINGS : WORKING AND SETTING THEM OUT. 



473 



side flats or " fillets." These are to be 
| drawn along the sides of the astragal as a 
guide to the marking knife to cut in the 
edges of the hollows, which are thereafter 
worked with suitable rounds. 

Working Cornice Moulding. 

Fig. 1569 is a section of a cornice mould 
set up in the position it would occupy when 
fixed, the dotted outline indicating the 
necessary size of the piece required to pro- 
duce it ; this piece should be planed true 



4 


I 


3 


■ . - 

r ' 




!\< ; 




^2 








a 










A4 , 






;ftj 




' I 2 


3 J4£.6; Fig. 1571. 


D 




Fig. 1572. 



Fig. 1571. — Elevation of Circular Cornice. 
Fig. 1572. — Plan of Circular Cornice. 

on the back or worse side, and the edges 
shot to the width as shown. Then the 
outline having been marked on each end 
as shown by the full ]ines, gauge lines 
should be run on from the points a, b, and 
c, and the piece planed off to these bevels, 
which should be at right angles or square 
to each other. Then the rebate for the 
cover board should be formed by ploughing 
a groove, and other grooves are then to be 
run in to form the fillets as shown in Fig. 
1570. The piece is here shown supported 
by two strips b nailed to the bench ; it will, 



of course, require turning round when being 
ploughed from the edge a (Fig. 1569). The 
core is removed with gouges, and preliminary 
rebates are formed as guides for the depth 
of the stickings, as described previously 
for the ogee moulding. 

Working Circular Cornice Moulding". 

Figs. 1571 and 1572 are the elevation and 
inverted plan of a circular corner to the 
cornice shown in section at Fig. 1569. The 
rectangle enclosed by the lines a b and c d 
(Fig. 1571) shows the size of the block re- 
quired. Two templates will be necessary, 
one to the plan curves e h and / g (Fig. 1572), 





Fig. 


1573. 

C 






1/ 


r' '/',:'•'.■; ■ 


1 


1 


}\}\- : '; ]] \ 


\ ;';[ 






I. 


...rU|l -' 


' 'iX 




c ■- ■ 

! 


■■|i 


IP 
1 




1 


1 1 

j tU 


' 1 

i 

J I 1 


1 


1 


" 


iWTT- 1 




I 


1 , 


M';!| 1 

Irfflf 1 11 


1 II 1 111 




u- 


!'i Mk\i\\\\Mm<mm\\\\\\ 



Fig. 1574. 

Fig. 1573. — Section of Raised Panel. 

Fig. 1574. — Plan of Raised Panel. 

and one as shown in Fig. 1569. The joints 
e f and g h are made first, square with each 
other and the top surface ; then the plan 
template is applied at the top and bottom 
and the outlines are marked, the front and 
back edges of the piece being worked off 
with chisel and gouges, or cut with a bow- 
saw and finished with a spokeshave. The 
section template is next applied on each 
joint, the edge b c (Fig. 1569) being kept 
flush with the front, and the outline marked ; 
pencil lines are then gauged round from the 
front on the bottom surface of the block 
from all the members of the moulding, as 
indicated by the lines numbered 1 to 6 in 
Fig. 1572, the numbered points in Fig. 1571 



;:4 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



corresponding. The block is now fixed on 
the bench, and saw-cuts are run in tangent 
to the various curves, and are met by cor- 
responding cuts from the face of the block, 
as indicated by the double lines. These 
are the commencements of a series of rebates 
to be finished with chisels and rebate planes, 
and they must be carefully worked one after 
the other, commencing with the member 
marked 6 and keeping the margins equal 
all round. After the rebates are finished, 
the moulds are worked with thumb hollows 
and rounds. To prevent the edges at the 
joints breaking out, the outlines should be 




Fjcr. 1576. 

Fig. 1575. — Rubbers for Beads. 

Fig. 1576. — Holding Glasspaper on Rubber. 

Fig. 1577.— Cork-faced Rubber. 

carefully cut in for about J in. with suit- 
able gouges or chisels, from the outside to- 
wards the middle, and in working the planes 
take care not to go below this cut portion, 
the cleaning off being left until the piece is 
glue -jointed and dowelled to the straight 
portions of the moulding. 

Working- Raised Panel. 

Figs. 1573 and 1574 are the section and 
plan of a sunk, raised, and fielded panel. 
It is prepared by trying up the back and 
gauging to thickness, and then cutting and 
squaring off to the finished size, as indicated 
by the outline in Fig. 1573. Next the sinking 
a is gauged all round the edges from the 



face, and also the thickness of the tongue b, 
which is gauged from the back. The lines 
c c (Fig. 1574) are then gauged in with the 
cutting gauge, working from the edges of 
the panel. A plough groove is run along 
the sides, close to the gauge lines, to the 
required depth of the sinking, and similar 
grooves are cut across the grain with the 
tenon saw, as indicated by the dotted 
fines in Fig. 1574, the core being removed 
with a small chisel and the plough run across 
to regulate the depth. The panel is now 
turned up on edge in the bench-screw, back 
outwards, and a plough groove b (Fig. 1573) 
run around the edges to a depth slightly 
under the amount by which the tongue will 
enter the groove in the framing. Next 
work out the rebate a all round, and with 
a shoulder plane or a rebate plane set very 
fine and laid flat, go carefully around the 
sides of the sinking, working off clean and 
square to the gauge lines. Then chip away 
the core between the top and bottom of the 
chamfer, and true up with the shoulder 
plane. The cross or end grain should be 
worked first, and a mitre line drawn at each 
angle, when the sides can be worked off to 
these lines, which will produce correct mitres. 

Cleaning Up Mouldings. 

Mouldings are cleaned up by rubbing the 
surface with glasspaper of different degrees 
of fineness, applied to the various members 
of the moulding by means of suitably shaped 
rubbers of soft wood or cork ; the latter is 
the better material, as it does not get 
heated so readily with the friction. This 
heating melts the glue with which the glass 
is attached to the paper, and causes it to 
come to the surface, where it adheres to 
the dust produced in rubbing, quickly 
clogging the paper and rendering it useless. 
The rubber must be made to fit the curves 
of the moulding exactly, and in the case of 
a large moulding the rubbers may fit differ- 
ent parts of the surface ; generally, how- 
ever, quirks and flats are best rubbed with 
separate rubbers, as in Fig. 1575, although, 
if care is taken, the flats on a small moulding 
may be cleaned up with the rubber used for 
the curved parts, as shown in F.'g. 1576. 
The flat parts of the rubber should, how- 
ever, pass well beyond the arrises of the 



MOULDINGS : WORKING AND SETTING THEM OUT. 



475 



(fillets, to avoid the danger of the glasspaper 
irising on the edge of the rubber and taking 
(off the sharp edge of the moulding. The 
ipaper should not be folded double on the 
I rubber, and must be pressed very tightly 
[round the latter ; it should also not be 
: allowed to overhang the ends of the rubber, 
'but should be kept short. Wood rubbers 
iare shaped with hollows and rounds, and 
I are usually about 4 in. long by 2 J in. wide. 
| Cork rubbers, being generally made from 
i odd pieces of cork (bottle corks), are of 
various lengths ; they are sometimes glued 
in J-in. slabs to wood blocks and shaped 



ing raises the grain and results in a much 
smoother finish. 

Fixing and Fitting Mouldings. 

Fig. 1578 is a sketch of a small door show- 
ing the method of inserting a planted mould- 
ing ; the shorter pieces are mitered and shot 
to the exact length between the stiles, and 
the longer pieces are shot rather full in 
length, so that they can be forced in with- 
out bruising the ends when the other pieces 
are removed. Having fitted each piece 
separately, try each mitre to see that the 
mouldings meet correctly, which they should 




Fig. 1578.— Fitting Mouldings. 



as required after drying as shown in Fig. 
1577. A sharp gouge and a rat-tail file 
are useful tools for roughly shaping cork ; 
then bed a piece of fine glasspaper round the 
moulding, and rub the rubber over this, 
which will fin'sh it accurately to shape. 
Oakey's cabinet glasspaper should be used, 
and is made in several degrees, the most 
useful being : M2, for the first cut in large 
soft wood mouldings ; F2, for a similar 
purpose in hard wood ; 1 j, a good general 
paper and suitable as a first cut for small 
mouldings, and a second cut for large deal 
mouldings ; I, a fine paper to finish hard- 
wood mouldings ; and 0, or flour paper, 
an extremely fine cut, only used when a 
very high finish is desired. In cleaning up 
hardwood mouldings, after the first paper- 
ing up is finished, slightly damp the mould- 
ing with hot water, and when this has dried, 
rub down with the finer paper ; this damp- 



do, in all but the last mitre, if the lengths 
have been cut off consecutively. The last 
mitre, joining up the opposite ends of the 
length, will probably vary slightly in sec- 
tion, and should be trimmed before being 
planted in. All being ready, cut four little 
blocks and place one at each corner, as 
shown ; then insert the end pieces of mould- 
ing, resting them on the blocks. Next 
spring in the side pieces by pressing the 
end down with the left elbow, pulling the 
middle of the length up into an arch with 
the left hand, and pressing the other end 
down into place with the right hand. When 
the end is entered, let go the middle, and the 
piece will spring in straight, bringing the 
mitre up tight. 

Setting Out Mouldings. 

Diminishing Moulding. — The following 
geometrical method will be found both 



476 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



simple and effective, both for diminishing 
and enlarging mouldings. To find the 
section of a moulding smaller than that 
represented at a, e, d, c (Fig. 1570), 
draw from a a horizontal line a g, at any 
convenient distance, produce the line e a 
to any convenient point h ; from c draw 
the perpendicular c f, and then take any 
suitable points in the profile of the mould- 
ing as 1, 2, 3, and 4 ; from these project 
horizontals to meet c f in 5, 6, 7, and 8. 
Then projecting down from points 2, 3, 



h f in /, draw the horizontal /, a, which cuts 
the radiating lines in b, e, g, and h; then 
from /' mark off corresponding distances 
as shown by a', b', e', g', h\ and raise pro- 
jectors as shown ; then from the point 
where the radiating lines from g cut d, f ', in 
5', (>', 7', 8', project horizontally, and thus 
show points in the profile of the moulding 
as 1', 2', :Y, 4'. 

Enlarging Mouldings.— To enlarge the 1 
moulding to a breadth equal to G m and 
to a thickness of h n, on the vertical line 




Figs. 1579 and 1580.-- 
Diminishing and En- 
K larging Mouldings. 



Fig. 1579. 



i '// / 

'III I 

ill 

<„,/ 
wl 

I 



L- - 



and 4, we obtain 9, 10, and 11. Now from 
h draw radiating lines passing through points 
B, ( », 10, 11, and f, also from G draw radiating 
lines passing through points 5, 6, 7, 8, and 
d. At G set up a perpendicular, and then 
make G k equal to the breadth of the 
moulding required. From k draw a hori- 
zontal line cutting g d in d, then from d 
draw the perpendicular d /'. Next from 
h draw a horizontal line making h l equal 
to the thickness required, then from L 
draw a line parallel to h a, so that it cuts 



G M mark off the breadth, project a hori- 
zontal to cut the radiator G o in e' ; draw 
the vertical line e' p, then produce the other 
radiators to meet the line as shown. Then 
project horizontally from H, and on h n 
mark off the given thickness, cutting the 
radiating line H R in s ; draw the hori- 
zontal s t ; produce the other radiators to 
meet this line as shown. From p (Fig. 
1580) mark off distances b, 9, 10, 11, and 
f, to correspond with those at s t (Fig. 
1579) ; projectors raised from these 
points will determine points 1" to c" in the 
curve, which can then be drawn as shown. 
By p, e', f' is shown the profile of a mould- 
ing which is much broader than but of the 
same thickness as the original moulding a, e, 
d, the setting out of which will be clearly 
understood without need of further explana- 
tion. 

Raking Mouldings Round External Angle. 
— Fig. 1581 illustrates the process of obtain- 
ing the sections of raking mouldings round 
the external angle of a wall which is square. 
In this case the returned pieces are hori- 



MOULDINGS : WORKING AND SETTING THEM OUT. 



477 



zontal. The raking moulding abc being 
| given, it is required to find the profiles of 
' the mouldings mitering into it. Take any 
i number of points in the section given, and 

project two lines from each, one to the back 
; of the section a c, and another parallel 
I to a c to a line p l drawn from a at right 
j angles to a c ; a' c' and a" c" are the eleva- 
\ tions of the faces of the returning walls. 
| Take any point p in c' a' and c" a" pro- 
| duced, and draw p l at right angles to it, 

and on that side on which is the moulding. 



required sections. To avoid confusion of 
lines the points taken should be numbered, 
the lines drawn through them, and the points 
in the projection lines numbered in the same 
way. The above example also represents the 
moulding which occurs in the pediment. 

Raking Mouldings on Internal Angle. — 
Fig. 1582 illustrates the various sections of a 
moulding running round the interior angles 
of a wall. It also shows the different forms 
of sash-bar moulding required for a certain 
kind of lantern light, and the shape of the 




Fig. 1581.— Raking Mouldings 
on External Angle. 



Fig. 1582. 



Raking Mouldings on 
Internal Angle. 



p l might be called the projection line. 
It is required to transfer the points on it to 
the other lines p l. To do this take a strip 
of paper, and, placing the edge against the 
projection line, make marks on it over the 
points. The strip can now be placed against 
the new lines and the several points marked 
off from it, taking care that p is over a and 
L above b. Project lines from the points in 
the projection lines, parallel to the backs 
of the mouldings a 7 c' and a" o". Draw 
also lines, to meet these, through the points 
taken on the given profile, and parallel 
to the lines a' c" and a' c". The inter- 
sections of these lines are points on the 



angle bar in a shop front, a b is the section 
given or known. Points 1, 2, 3, etc., are 
taken in the profile, the points in the curved 
portions being taken sufficiently close to 
admit of a freehand curve being drawn 
through the resulting points. The process is 
the same as for the previous example, a" b' 
and a" b" are the sections of the mouldings 
mitering into the raking one, which are hori- 
zontal. When the mouldings on both faces 
of the wall are on the rake or at an angle, 
one of the methods illustrated at the right 
of the figure is adopted. In one case the 
points on the profile are projected to the 
back line of the section, and lines are drawn 



478 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



from these at the angle to which the mould- 
ing is to be fixed. A new back line is then 
drawn across these lines and at right angles 
to them. A line is now drawn from one of 
the front points, say a" at the new rake of 
the moulding. By drawing the projection 



responding lines drawn through the projec- 
tion line. 

Raking Moulding intersecting an Obtuse 
Angle with a Horizontal.— a b, c (Fig. 
1583) is the plan of the faces of two walls 
intersecting at b at an obtuse angle, a b 




Figs. 1583 and 1584.— Raking 
Moulds intersecting at an 
Obtuse Angle with a Hori- 
zontal. 



Fig. 1583. 



line p l, and lines through the points in it, 
the point a'" is found. Join this to the end 
of the new back line, and draw lines parallel 
to it from the other points in the line. The 
intersections of these lines, with those 
drawn through the line p l, are points on 
the new section. The other method, which is 
tn f, shorter when the elevation of the mitre 
(a" b") has been drawn, is by drawing lines 
from the points on the profile, and at the 
rake of the moulding to intersect the cor- 



being a level moulding and B c a raking 
moulding. Parallel to b c draw x y, 
projecting up from b the back of the mitre, 
the point d (Fig. 1583) is obtained ; draw 
the inclination of the moulding as shown 
by d e. Draw x' y' at right angles to 
a b (Fig. 1584), and draw the section of 
the level moulding as shown by k, f, g, h, 9, 
and from convenient points as shown by 
1, 2, 3, and 4 project down and draw the 
plan of the moulding and also the mitre 



MOULDINGS : WORKING AND SETTING THEM OUT. 



479 



j b l as shown ; repeat the section of the 
horizontal moulding on x y as shown by 
k', f', g', h'. Now consider the points 
1 to 9 and V to 9' as the elevations of 
horizontal lines on the moulded surfaces, 
which have been projected from the sections 
and are repeated on plan. These lines in 
plan intersect at the mitre line in both 
the horizontal and raking moulds. Now 
projecting up from the intersections in 
the plan of the mitre and horizontally 
from corresponding points g', Y, 2', 3', 4', 
in the elevation, points l', a', e', d r are 
obtained. Then from these points draw 
lines as shown at the proper rake to cut 



Mitering Mouldings. — When two pieces of 
moulding are joined together by mitering, 
the mitre is straight when the pieces are 
straight, or of the same curvature. To 
facilitate the operation of mitering, the 
mitre is often made straight, and the contour 
of one of the pieces of moulding is varied to 
suit it. Fig. 1585 illustrates the method. 
The profile of the straight piece is given ; it 
is necessary to find that of the curved one. 
Take points on the given section, and project 
them to a projection line p l and to the 
mitre line. Draw a line across the curved 
moulding, radiating to the centre from 
which the curve is struck (or normal to the 




Fig. 1585. — Section of Ramp Moulding to have 
Straight Mitre, 

the line m n, which is at right angles to 
p/ c' ; make the ordinates from &" ', 1", 
2" ', 3", 4" the same lengths from m n as 
the corresponding ordinates from f' k/, 
thus obtaining the section of the upper 
portion of the raking moulding so that it 
shall intersect with the horizontal mould- 
ing in a vertical mitre. Points in the 
profile of the lower part of the section 
of the raking mould are shown at h", 6"-, 
1" ', 8", 9" ; these are obtained in an exactly 
similar manner to the upper portion, 
and no difficulty will be found in follow- 
ing the working illustrated. Each imagin- 
ary line in the upper moulded surfaces 
is represented by one straight line in plan 
in every case but one ; in plan one line 
is made to represent an imaginary line 
directly under it on the lower moulded 
surface. 




Fig. 1586. — Ramping Moulding to Given Point. 

curve if it is not circular). Continue the 
lines drawn to the mitre line to this line, 
and project lines thence at right angles. 
Draw the projection line p l as shown, and 
obtain the intersections on the points on 
the required profile. 

Ramping Moulding to Given Point. — Fig. 
1586 illustrates the problem of ramping a 
moulding to a given point, such as occurs 
when a dado rail is continued from the level 
up a staircase, or from a staircase to a land- 
ing, cbd represents the line of the mould- 
ing. It is required to ramp it to the point 
a. Draw a line f a o vertical. The centre 
of the curve of the ramped portion will be in 
this line. It will also be in a line drawn 
from a point in c b d at right angles to it ; 
the point in c b d being the place at which 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



the straight portion meets the curved. 
Through a draw a line de at right angles 
to c d. Take points f and e in a f and a e 
equidistant from a. With the compasses 
set to a distance about equal to the line 
joining f e, describe arcs with f and e as 
centres. Join a to the intersection of these 
arcs, and produce it to meet c d in b. From 



Appliance for Marking Mouldings for 
Mitering and Scribing. 

At Fig. 1588 is illustrated an appliance 
designed to do away with the difficulties 
commonly met with in marking mouldings 
for the purpose of returning the ends in the 
solid, or for scribing. Properly manipulated, 



Fig. 1587. — Easement of Angle. 



Fig. 1588. — Application 
of Apparatus for Mark- 
ing Mouldings for Miter- 
ing and Scribing to Wood 
Moulding. 



b draw Boat right angles to CD. Then o 
is the centre of the curve joining b to a, and 
to which the line c b is tangential. [Any 
difficulties met with in solving similar prac- 
tical problems should be submitted to the 
Editor of "Building World" for solution in 
that journal.] 

Easement of Angle. — In Fig. 1587 the 
method of easing an angle is shown. Take 
points d and e in a b and a c equidistant 
from a, and draw lines from these points 
at right angles to the lines in which they are. 
These intersect at o, which is the centre, 
while o d or o e is the radius of the curve. 




it will give any kind of scribe or mitre that 
may be required. The pencil has a flat side 
planed throughout its length, so as to bed 
fairly on the plane, and is used as indicated in 
Fig. 1588, which shows the application of the 
apparatus : the moulding is held in position 
by the left hand, any marks that have been 
made on it being adjusted to the point of 
the pencil, which is then worked all round 
the surface of the moulding, care being taken 
that it always lies flat upon the plane. The 
curved line shows the path traced round the 
surface of the moulding by the point of 
the pencil. 



SKIRTINGS, DADOS, PANELWORK, LININGS, ETC. 



Lining Material. 

All pine woods, besides many hardwoods, 
are used in the production of lining. The 
hardwoods generally employed are mahogany, 
walnut, maple, oak, etc. Linings may be 
plain V-jointed, double V-jointed, beaded, 
or reeded. The V bead or reed should always 




Fig. 1589.— Method in which Log is Cut into 
Boards. 

be formed on the face, or best-dressed side. 
Linings vary in thickness from f in. to 
| in., f in. being the size mostly used. First 
quality Bjorneborg pine (red and white) fur- 
nishes- good material for lining. Small, firm 
knots are not objected to. Pitchpine should 
be free from knots and sap ; likewise first 
quality yellow pine. The latter is most ex- 
pensive, on account of its nature, appearance, 
and adaptability. Half an inch is allowed 
for the tongue on all pine woods ; | in. on 
hardwood. A beautiful grain in pitchpine 



lining is an important feature which should 
always be considered, but which cannot be 
obtained if the stuff is cut athwart the grain. 
The best figure is always obtained from the 
outside of sawn or hewn logs, the nearer the 
alburnum of the wood the better. Fig. 1589 
shows graphically how this occurs. Let it be 
assumed that the dotted outer ring was the 
original size of the tree in the round. The 
square represents the size to which it was 
reduced for exportation. Between the two 
outer circular lines the wood is sappy ; 
between the second outer line and the heart 
it is resinous. The parallel lines represent 
saw-cuts. All the planks up to No. 8 are 
3J in. thick ; No. 9, 4| in. ; Nos. 10 and 11, 
5 in. As pitchpine lining is generally 3J in. 
broad in the rough, it may be assumed that 
this log was planked out by the log-frame 
for lining purposes. Plank No. 1 would 
yield about forty f-in. boards, but not one 
would show a good figure. The result of No. 
2 would be almost similar. With No. 3 a 
good figure would appear, especially on the 
outer edges. Nos. 4 and 5 would produce 
a finer figure still. Nos. 6, 7, and 8 would 
be beautiful across their entire breadths. 
No. 9 should be cut the opposite way from 
the planks that precede it ; if cut the 
same way, considerable loss would result, 
and no figure could be obtained. Nos. 10 
and 11 should also be cut as No. 9. In the 
butt of a good tree there should be no knots 
outside of 4-in. radius from the heart, but 
the heart of any tree (whether butt or top) 
cannot be had free of knots. Yellow lining 
is commonly f in. by 3 in. ; four boards, at 
f in. full, are got from 3-in. deals. All yellow 
wood should be dried in a kiln before being 
wrought by the machine. Thin saws only 
should be used for breaking it out ; saws 
thicker than No. 15 gauge are not suitable. 
With No. 16 gauge, four pieces at y^ can 



21 



481 



482 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



be got from a 3-in. deal ; y, 1 , in. is sufficient 
for machine dressing and working. Narrow 
lining is preferable to that which is broad or 
double V-jointed; however well seasoned 
the broad stuff may be, shrinkage is more or 
less perceptible in a few months after it is 
placed in position. Hardwood lining can- 
not be manufactured with the same ease as 
pine-wood lining ; with hardwoods more 
caution must be observed, and more time 
taken in the sawing and machine working. 

Fixing Wooden Plugs for Grounds. 

Plugs are pieces of wood or metal, or of 
wood encased in metal, that are inserted in 
the joints of brickwork or stonework, or are 
driven into holes bored into brickwork or 
stonework, for the purpose of affording a 




Fig. 1590.— Twisted Plug. 

holding-place for those fixtures that are 
erected by carpenters and joiners. The 
twisted plug shown by Fig. 1590 is made 
from dry straight-grained deal, the opposite 
corners of which are cut off as illustrated ; 
the thin or entering edge of the plug is left 
of equal thickness along its width, with its 
edges parallel. 

Securing Skirting in Cottage Work. 

For securing skirting in ordinary cottage 
work, joints about 3 ft. apart are made in 
the brickwork with a plugging chisel. The 
plugs should be of the shape shown in Fig. 
1590, each fitted in its own joint, and driven 
in up to the shoulder (Fig. 1591). A 
chalk line is then stretched from the first 
plug to the last, the line being held suffi- 
ciently far from the surface of the bricks to 
allow for the thickness of the plaster. The 



plugs are marked at this point, and the 
superfluous wood is cut off. When the wall 
has been plastered, the end of the plug 
should be not quite level with the surface of 
the plaster. Fig. 1592 shows the common 
way of fixing the skirting. 




Fig. 1591.— Plug Fitted to Joint. 

Securing Skirting in First = class 
Work. 

In buildings of a more pretentious charac- 
ter, and superintended by a clerk of works, a 
higher class of work is expected. Suppose 
an order has been given to fix two sets of 
grounds for a 9-in. skirting, the wal!s of the 
room to be perfectly square and plumb when 
plastered. When the room is on the ground 
floor, the floor-level, if it has not been 
marked, must be obtained. It may some- 
times be got from an adjoining room, where 
the floor-level has been determined by the 
floor joist running over one of the cellars. 
The room must now be squared by the out- 
side wall, working through the window 




Fig. 1592. — Fixing Skirting in Common Work. 

opening (Figs. 1593 to 1595), the inside walls, 
being plumbed from floor to ceiling, trying 
the window side first to see if it inclines 
inwards or outwards at the top or at the 
bottom. Then the joints to receive the 
plugs (beginning with the window side) 



SKIRTINGS, DADOS, PANELWORK, LININGS, ETC. 



483 



must be cleared, making the joints 18 in. 
apart along the wall, and placing the bottom 
ground or row of plugs about 1 in. or 1J in. 
from the floor, and the top ground J in. or 
| in. below the top edge of the skirting. 
When all the plugs have been driven in on 
the window side, fasten the chalk line across 
the room to the bottom row of plugs. Then 
place a rule across the window opening on 



rule ; b, parallel rule ; c, plugs ; d, chalk line ; 
E, equal thicknesses. Plugs, to which blocks 
of wood (sometimes called " soldiers ") must 
be nailed, should also be placed in the joints 
between the top and bottom rows ; these 
plugs must be about 2 ft. apart (f f, Fig. 
1596). The grounds should be so fixed 
that the walls may. be perfectly straight, 
plumb and square when plastered ; and the 




Fig. 1593. 

Figs. 1593 and 1594.— Use of 
Parallel Rule and Plumb Rule 
in Squaring a Room from 
the Outside. 

Fig. 1595.— Plan of Wall showing 
Use of Parallel Rule and 
Plumb Rule in Squaring a 
Room from the Outside. 



the inside, keeping it parallel with the out- 
side of the wall (Figs. 1593 to 1595), and 
drop a plumb line from the rule as a guide 
to set the chalk line, which should be parallel 
with the rule. The chalk line should be 
kept back the thickness of the grounds, so 
that the latter may finish flush with the 
face of the plaster. If the face of the wall 
is not quite straight or flat (it is sometimes 
rounded a little), the face of the ground must 
be J in. from that part of the surface that 
protrudes most. The reference letters in 
Figs. 1593 to 1595 are as follows : a, plumb 



Fig. 1594. 




Fig. 1595. 

least amount of plaster on any part of the 
walls must be of the specified thickness (say 
J in.). Figs. 1596 to 1599 show a method 
of preparing the grounds and fixing skirting 
sometimes adopted in first-class work. If 
the wall on the window side slopes towards 
the inside of the wall, say, J in. at the top, 
the faces of the grounds must be fixed J in. 
from the most protruding point at the bot- 
tom, and there will then be If in. of plaster 
at the top. When the chalk line is parallel 
with the outside face of the wall, the line 
may be run along the top row of plugs, keep- 



t84 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



ing it perfectly plumb to the bottom line, squaring the other sides, taking first the side 
using for this purpose a small plumb rule to the right and plumbing the wall from 
about 18 in. long by 2J in. by. J in. All the floor to ceiling as before, making due allow - 




Fig. 1596. 





Fig. 1597. 



Fig. 1599. 

Figs. 1596 to 1599.— Method of Fixing Skirting 
in First-class Work. 



plugs may now be marked and cut off, and ance in setting the ground for any round- 
the window side will be ready to receive the ness or other irregularity on the face or at 
grounds. Before, however, any grounds are the top or bottom of the wall. To square 




Fig. 1600. — Method of Preparing for and Fixing Double-faced Skirting 



fixed, the other three sides of the room must this side from the plugs on the window side, 
be made perfectly true. The plugs already a square with arms about 8 ft. long will be 
fixed can be used as a base to work from in required, one edge being placed against the 



SKIRTINGS, DADOS, PANELWORK, LININGS, ETC. 



485 



face of the sawn plugs, and the chalk line 
set parallel to the other edge. This side 
may now be plugged, and the chalk line 
run along the plugs as before, after which the 
other two sides of the room can be done. 
When the plugs for the skirting ground 
have been cut off, the window and door 
openings must be plugged to receive the 
grounds for the architraves. The joint 
grounds must be plumb and parallel, and 
the heads must be square, level, and J in. 
or f in. from the outside edge of the archi- 
trave. The joints must be lined out to the 
grounds behind the window linings and the 




Fig. 1601. — Piece of Skirting for Internal 
Angle Mitered and Dovetailed. 

•door casings. All the internal angles of the 
grounds must be grooved and tongued, and 
the external angles mitered. When the 
grounds have been fixed, the blocks (f f, 
Fig. 1596) may be fixed between them, one 
being placed on each side of the external and 
internal angles to form a solid angle. The 
blocks should be let into the grounds. 
When the grounds are fixed, a nail must be 
driven into the wall on each side of the 
corners of the room near the ceiling, plumb 
with the face of the grounds. The nails 
must not be more than 9 ft. apart, and on 
each nail a pat of plaster must be laid, to 
which the plasterer will afterwards have to 
work. At Fig. 1600 is illustrated the 
method of fixing double-faced skirtings, 



which are usually in two parts as shown. 
The lower member is prepared with a tongue 
for fitting into a groove made in the flooring ; 
its upper edge is ploughed to receive a 
tongue of the upper member. The two 
parts are usually of nearly equal thickness, 
and as the lower one projects this necessi- 
tates preparing and fixing blocks as shown 
at A ; these fit to the back of the skirting. 
The grounds c are as previously described. 
Where the skirtings meet at the internal 
angles, they are usually grooved, tongued, 
and scribed, as illustrated. The skirting at 
d is purposely drawn off from e the better 
to illustrate the construction. Usually the 
external angles are simply mitered, and for 
painted work are nailed together ; where 



5*>X^\ 




Fig. 1602.— 
Lead Plug. 



Fig. 1603. — Cast-Iron 
Box for Gas Bracket. 



nailing is not permissible, secret dovetailing 
gives the best result. This is illustrated at 
Fig. 1601, which shows the mitre and sockets 
cut to receive the other pieces. 

Lead Plug's and Iron = cased Plugs. 

All plugs and woodwork should be kept 
at least 9 in. from fireplaces or flues, and if 
a plug is required within the prescribed area, 
it must be made of lead (see Fig. 1602). If 
a gas bracket is to be fixed on the chimney 
breast or opposite a flue, the wood block 
must be tightly encased in a J-in. cast-iron 
box or 4J-in. cube (outside dimensions), the 
grain of the wood being vertical (see Fig. 
1603). If these boxes are to be fixed after 
the walls are up, they must be fastened with 
iron wedges, then made tight all round with 
good mortar. All wood that is to be plas- 
tered over, such as plugs, is kept back J in. 
from the face of the plaster. 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



Round Wooden Plugs. 

The round wooden plug, to contain which 
a hole is drilled in brick or stone, is often 
found to be useful, but the larger the plug 
the more in proportion will be the shrinkage 
in drying. The plug, therefore, should bear 
some relation to the size of the screw. A 
J-in. or f-in. plug is quite large enough for 



nor so durable as a framed dado would be, 
but, given good fixing, will prove serviceable 
for many years. An inspection of the detail 
drawings (Figs. 1608 to 1611) will make it 



Fig. 1604. — Correct Form 
of Round Plug. 



a No. 12 or 14 screw. Fig. 1604 shows the 
best form of round plug ; Fig. 1605 is a 
bad form, being too tapering, but it is 
often used. 




SKIRTINGS, DADOS, PANKLWORK, LININGS, ETC. 



487 



clear how the effect of panelled framing is 
obtained. The linings to the door and 
window openings (one of the latter being 
shown in Figs. 1606 and 1607) are carried 
over the framed grounds bounding the open- 
ings, and they project J in. in front of the 
architraves. The mouldings of the surbase, 
plinth, and dado rail are replicas of the outer 
members of the architrave, up to the level of 
the first flat, and the various members are 
mitered into the architrave and finish flush 
with the flat d (Fig. 1609). The architrave 
and dado rail ground are rebated to receive 
the panelling as shown at e (Figs. 1608 and 
1612), the grounds finishing £ in. thick. 
These grounds must be fixed first, plumb, 
square, and level ; the top edge of the 
dado ground from J in. to f in. below the 
line of the dado, which in this case is 4 ft. 
high. The grounds are fixed to wood plugs 
driven into the joints of the brickwork about 
every 2 ft. One of these plugs is shown in 
dotted outline in Fig. 1609. The plastering 
should be finished flush with the grounds, 
and after it is set the fixing of the dado can 
be proceeded with. Assuming all the mould- 
ings and the battens for the panels to have 
been prepared, proceed to fix the door and 
window linings as shown in Fig. 1609. These 
must be made to project over the face of 
the grounds If in., the edges being plumb 
and out of winding. Nail them to the grounds 
and cross backings as shown. Next set out 
on one or more rods, as may be required, the 
net sizes between the linings, and between 
the faces of the grounds, on the ends of the 
room where no linings occur. These dimen- 
sions must be taken very exactly. Take a 
piece of the architrave mould, and with its 
back edge on the lines representing the 
linings set off its width. Then space out 
the muntins as shown in the plan (Fig. 1607), 
in each case using a piece of the requisite 
moulding for a gauge by which to obtain 
the widths. Immediately beyond the first 
section, and working from the same boundary 
lines, set out a section of the lower panelling, 
upon which the lower muntins are drawn 
as they occur. No moulding need be drawn, 
only the sight lines of the muntins. One 
such rod should be prepared for each bay, and 
from these the lengths of the plinth, surbase. 
and dado rails may be obtained, the sight 




Fig. 1608.— Detail Section on C C (Fig. 1606). 



488 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



lines of the respective architraves and 
muntins being squared across their edges 
with the marking knife. From these points 
the mitres may be cut with the aid of a mitre 
template. A similar height rod, showing 
the exact heights of the three horizontal 
members of the framing, should be pre- 
pared. Before setting this out, the state 
of the floor should be ascertained. If it is 
much out of level, or irregular, sufficient 
allowance must be made for scribing the 
plinth level, and it would be preferable to 
allow an extra \ in. on the width, of the 
plinth for scribing, so that its finished height 



adopted. In fixing the grounds, etc., take 
the height at the centres of the grounds G G 
as shown on the rod, and plug the walls to 
receive them. The best way to do this is to 
drive plugs at the required height from the 
floor at each end of a bay, and resting a 
plumb-rule in the rebate of the top ground 
e (Fig. 1608), plumb it upright, and with a 
piece of the thin ground as a gauge drive in 
the plug until the former will just clear the 
edge of the rule. Having done this at each 
end, drive a nail into each plug, and stretch 
a chalk-line between. The remaining plugs 
are then driven or cut off flush with the 




Fig. 1609.— Detail at A A (Fig. 1606). 

should remain as given — namely, 9 in. As 
there is a skirting fillet, an extra fit for the 
lower edge of the plinth is not necessary. 
Fixing the Sham Dado. — If this dado is to 
be prepared at a shop some distance from 
the building where it is to be fixed, the pre- 
pared rods should be sent on there, and the 
joiners would fit together the parts as shown, 
marking with a chisel all the mitres on the 
back for identification, and cutting off the 
battens to size as shown for the panels. In 
this case it would be safer not to cut the 
mitres in the architraves until they had been 
fitted round the linings ; and the horizontal 
rails should be cut off ^V in. full at each end, 
so that they should fit close when sprung in 
place. If, however, the entire work were 
prepared on the job, then a slightly different 
procedure in relation to the fitting would be 



Fig. 1610.— Detail of Panel. 

line. Next the floor fillets are nailed in place 
as shown in Fig. 1608, the exact position 
being ascertained from the rod. The thick- 
ness of the plinths is carefully noted, and 
these are fixed straight by the aid either of a 
spring line or of a long straightedge. After 
these are fixed, the plinth backings, pieces of 
1 in. by 1 J in., are fixed to plugs about every 
3 ft., and finished flush with the floor fillet. 
Upright grounds are then fixed behind each 
muntin, as shown by the length rod. As- 
suming that the work is to be fitted and fixed 
on the job, cut the plinths in tight between 
the linings, fitting the piece between the 
window linings first, and cutting in a tem- 
porary stretcher between the door linings. 



SKIRTINGS, DADOS, PANELWORK, LININGS, ETC. 



489 



Scribe the wall angles of the plinth, as shown 
in Fig. 1611. Having fitted the plinth all 
round, next fit the architraves round the 
openings, cutting the uprights first. Having 
fitted these, mark them, and then take down. 
Fix the lower sets of panels as shown in Fig. 
1608 ; if the tongues fit tightly, they will only 
need a brad here and there. They should 
have been previously all cut to size, as shown 
on the rod, with plenty of clearance between 
their edges. The upper panels may now 
be fixed. These will only require bradding 
on the lower edges, with an occasional brad 
in the upper edge to keep them from falling 
over. Remove the plinth first, however, 



ensure the dado being level all round the 
room. It should be noted that in fitting 
the dado rail the top member does not come 
into the mitre, but is stopped square against 
the architrave, a beaded backing piece 
being fixed to the framed ground to take 
this, as shown in Fig. 1609. All being fitted 
together, the preliminary to fixing is to run 
all round the room the groove for the skirt- 
ing shown in Fig. 1608. This would be 
done with a grooving plane working against 
a thin strip equal in width to the thickness 
of the plinth, and resting against the floor 
fillet. This groove should just take the 
pencil line previously made out, so that the 
plinth is nipped tightly between the skirting 
and fillet. Proceed to fix the plinth as 
shown in Fig. 1608, bradding the top edge 




Fig. 1611.— Isometric Detail of Plinth. 

pencilling a line along its face on the floor, 
and, taking it to the bench, set out the mitres 
for the muntins from the rod, as described 
previously. All the fitting up can now be 
done on the bench, as the external sizes are 
given in each direction by the architraves and 
plinths respectivelyo To get the lengths of 
the muntins, after fitting accurately an 
architrave with the first and second rails, 
turn it up on edge, and square over the mitre 
or sight line, on one top and one bottom 
muntin, and use these as length rods for 
setting out the remainder. A template 
applied to the sight lines will give the length 
of shoulder where it cuts the edge of the 
moulding (see h, Fig. 1608). The first fitted 
architrave will also be a guide by which to 
Set out the remainder, care being taken to 
keep the bottom ends flush, which will 
21* 



Fig. 1612.— Detail at B B (Fig. 1606). 

under the ogee, where the holes will be out 
of sight. Do not nail the lower edge ; drive 
the skirting in tightly, preferably gluing 
into the groove, but not to the plinth. Next 
fix the architraves to the ground and back- 
ings, and spring the rails between them, brad- 
ding the surbase mould as shown in Fig. 1608. 
Also insert the lower muntins, forcing the 
surbase moulding down tightly on to them. 
Next fix the top muntins, and finally the 
dado rail. The latter, having to keep the 
whole in position, is better fixed with screws, 
which in painted work would be turned in 
flush and puttied over, and in polished work 
should be sunk into holes (as shown in Fig. 
1608), which are afterwards filled in with 
turned pellets of similar wood. Figs. 1606 
and 1607 are reproduced to a scale of \ in. 
to 1 ft., and Figs. 1608 to 1610 half full 
size. The following is a list of letter refer- 
ences not explained in the text : J, jamb- 
lining ; k, ground ; l, panelling ; M, 
backing ; n, fillet ; o, architrave ; p, dado 



490 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



rail ; Q, top panel ; r, surbase mould ; t, 
bottom panel ; u, plinth mould ; v, skirt- 
ing ; w, flooring ; x, wall line. 

Oak Panelwork. 

In the framing up of oak panelwork, 
the essential requirement for sound, true 
work is a proper regard to the joints. The 
material is used so thin that the panelling 



it touches the grounds, and will wedge the 
top and bottom here and there, in order to 
bring the work true and straight both ways. 
A common fault, causing a great deal of 
trouble, is the neglect to thickness down the 
panels before final insertion in the framing. 
This prevents the framing from touching 
the grounds, and therefore the rough plaster 
filling or screeding must be hacked or 




i^^ilg^ai-gailgs^^ 




Fig. 1613. Fig. 1614. 

Fig. 1613.— Part Elevation of Oak Wall Panelwork. 

Fig. 1614. — Vertical Section. 

Figs. 1615 and 1616.— Details of Ordinary Mitered Corner. 

Figs. 1617 and 1618.— Details of Mason-Mitered Corner. 




Fig. 1618. 



should be stiffened with stout canvas glued 
to the back, which is sometimes primed with 
red-lead paint to afford protection from 
damp when the work is placed in a new 
building. It is usual to frame up the work 
with stuff varying in thickness from f in. 
to 1J in., finished sizes. In some shops it 
is not considered necessary to thickness the 
framing, which is only prepared on the face 
and two edges ; in which case a little more 
trouble is given to the fixer on the building, 
who, if his grounds are straight and true, will 
traverse the back of the panelwork where 



scraped away to allow of the panels going 
back without firring out the grounds. Com- 
plicated methods of framing require the 
use of draw-bore pins and oak dowel pins 
when finally gluing up the framing on the 
benches. A point that must be emphasised 
is that the tenon should be kept in the centre 
of the thickness of the framing, because 
under the pulling influence of the cramp 
the stile or rail always turns to the weaker 
shoulder ; and when such work has a 
shoulder J in. deep at the front or moulded 
side, and another shoulder -^ in. or J in. 



SKIRTINGS, DADOS, PANELWORK, LININGS, ETC. 



491 



deep at the back, extra labour is necessary 
in order to bring the face side to a true 
Surface, while the extra planing may injure 
the moulding on the edges, whereas a slight 
extra thickness" of material would obviate all 
the trouble and risk. The panelwork shown 
in Fig. 1613 is framed with lj-in. stuff, got to 
thickness and widths as shown in Fig. 1614. 




Fig. 1619. Fig. 1620. 

Fig. 1619.— Detail of Cornice Frieze, Main 
Framing, and Skirting. 
Fig. 1620.— Vertical Section through Fig. 1619. 

The centre framing is mitered together at the 
corners, which are further strengthened by 
the insertion of a cross-tongue joint, while 
the side rails and top and bottom muntins 
are tenoned and pinned like all the other 
tenons in the framing. The moulding stuck 
on the edges (or in the solid) is not mitered 
in the same way as for ordinary work (see 
Figs. 1615 and 1616) ; but the mitered 
corners are worked as shown in Figs. 1617 



and 1618, thus forming butt joints with 
mason-mi tered corners to all moulded edges. 
These corners are worked by the joiner on 
the bench after the panelling is glued up 
and cleaned off. The bottom rail is tongued 
into the skirting as shown in Figs. 1619 and 
1620, and the top rail meets the festooned 
frieze board under the small necking mould 
as shown, the frieze board being tongued 
to the den tilled cornice also. This cornice 
is double -dentilled, one row of dentils being 
cut farther back than the other, as shown 
in Figs. 1619 and 1620. As usual with 
built-up cornices, this section can be worked 
on the four-cutter moulder or on a spindle 
machine ; the dentilling, however, is best 
cut by hand. A cover-board lies at the back 
of the cornice, which is back-rebated to re- 
ceive the front edge of the cover-board. 
The three flutes over the top muntins have 
rounded-out top ends, and finish at the 
bottom on a splay ; whilst the festoons are 
preferably cut out of the solid, but are gener- 
ally planted on unless otherwise specified. 
In fixing this class of work, which is, as a 
rule, screwed up, all fixing screws should be 
hidden, or the holes should be bored to 
take " corks " a little larger than the screw 
head, and the " corks " should be cut from 
wood closely matching that in which the hole 
is bored. The framing must be fixed as true 
and upright as possible (especially at ex- 
ternal corners where mitered vertical joints 
occur) and well scraped and cleaned down 
after the fixing is done. The illustrations 
are reproduced to the following scales : — 
Figs. 1613 and 1614, fin. to 1 ft. ; Figs. 1615 
to 1618, half full size ; Figs. 1619 and 1620, 
1 J in. to 1 ft. 

Fixing Hardwood Dado. 

Fig. 1621 shows an elevation of a 
panelled dado with moulded skirting and 
capping. The dotted lines at c and d show 
the fixing fillets. Fig. 1622 shows a section 
of the dado. At a and b are grounds fixed 
to wood plugs or coke-breeze bricks built into 
the wall. The upper ground is wide enough 
to take 2 in. of the top rail of the dado and 
2 in. of capping, making 4 in. in all. It is 
splayed on the top edge to receive and to 
form a key for the plaster. On ground a at c 
are dovetailed fillets (see Figs. 1623 and 1627), 



492 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



fixed at convenient intervals of about 3 ft. 
apart. The mortices shown in Fig. 1624 
are cut into the top edge of the dado rail and 
the under edge of the capping ; these should 
be set out on the bench and cut in before 
sending on to the job. The fillets c being 



In fixing the dado, it should be placed against 
the grounds in its exact position, with the 
dovetailed fillet projecting above the upper 
edge. Two screws should then be driven 





Fig. 1621. — Elevation of Panelled Dado. 



Fig. 1622. — Vertical Section. 



prepared and fitted into the mortices and 
the capping fitted on, the fillets d (Fig. 1625) 
are cut, tapered in shape, and dovetailed as 
before. Skirting is prepared with a mould- 
ing tongued into the upper edge. Before 




Fixing Ground and Fillets. 



gluing in the moulding permanently, the 
skirting should be grooved on the rear side 
as shown in Fig. 1626, and fitted on to the 
fillets d. The skirting is prepared in this 
manner to enable the grooves to be cut 
easily and clean. As the piece forming the 
skirting slides on to these fillets, it tightens 
itself, and so a good secure fixing is obtained. 



into each piece, which will securely fix the 
whole ; the capping can then be gently 
dropped on in position. It will be advisable 




Fig. 1624.— Back View of Upper Part of Dado. 

to use a little glue on the fillet and in the 
mortices in each case, also along the top 
edge between the dado and capping. It will 



SKIRTINGS, DADOS, PANELWORK, LININGS, ETC. 



493 



be seen by referring to Fig. 1625 that the 
bottom rail of the dado is built up partly of 




Fig. 1625.— Showing Fixing Fillets for Skirting. 




Fig. 1626. — Back of Skirting with Grooves for 
Fixing. 

hardwood and deal, e being deal. Fig. 1628 
is an enlarged detail of rail and skirting. 




Fig. 1628. — Detail Section of Lower Part of 
Dado. 




Fig. 1627. — Conventional View, showing Method 
of Fixing Upper Part of Dado and Moulding. 



494 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



Geometrical Head Linings to Door X * *■ ^ f ^ j£™8 been jointed is 

,.,..,, ~ . nailed nrmly to the edges of the ribs, 

and W.ndow Open.ngs. and then planed ofi true 5 to the elliptical 

In the case illustrated by Figs. 1458 to curve. The board to form the veneer 

1465 (pp. 447 and 448), an elliptical-headed is from J in. to J in. thick, and wide enough 




Fig. 1629. — General View of Cylinder showing Veneer 
Bent and Partly Staved. 

casement window was shown, finished with to obviate joining. It is gradually bent 
square jamb linings, and the soffit pre- over the cylinder by first fixing a broad 
pared by veneering and blocking. A stave just below the springing A (Fig. 




Fig. 1630.— Geometrical Splayed Linings Built Up 
in Small Sections. 



cylinder is made of the form shown by 
Fig. 1629, which is of similar construction 
to a centre. Two ribs must be prepared, 
each rib consisting of two thicknesses 
nailed together and cut accurately to the 
curve required, the thickness of the lag- 
ging being, of course, deducted. The lag- 
ging, which may consist of strips about 



1629). Then, with a piece of wood, it is 
gradually pressed and worked forward a 
distance of about 12 in. or 18 in. A stave 
is then screwed down temporarily as in- 
dicated at b, and is followed by a second 
at c, and so on until the veneer is bent 



SKIRTINGS, DADOS, PANELWORK, LININGS, ETC. 



495 



round to fit the surface of the cylinder. 
For ordinary-sized openings, thin veneers 
can usually be bent round dry ; for narrow 
openings, it is necessary to steam the 
veneer, or to soak it with boiling water, 
and similar preparation is nearly always 
necessary for thick veneers. The staves 
are, of course, a little out of the square, 
and are sufficiently long to project beyond 



Fig. 1631 



Fig. 1632. 




Fig. 1633. 



Figs. 1631 to 1633.— Method of 

Obtaining Shape of Veneer for 

Geometrical Splayed Linings. 

the veneer as illustrated. At each end 
a hole is bored. Each stave is fitted to 
the preceding one, and glued to it and to 
the veneer. A screw is then inserted in 
each of the holes. These screws hold to 
the lagging of the cylinder. If the veneer 
is of pine, mahogany, oak, or other hard- 
wood, and is thick enough to allow of its 
being faced up, it is advantageous to do 
this before bending ; but where it is neces- 



sary to use a thin veneer, the finishing is 
done afterwards, by means of scraping, etc. 

Geometrical Splayed Linings, Built 
Up in Small Sections. 

Fig. 1630 illustrates the manner of build- 
ing up a curved splayed soffit lining for 
the soffit of the splayed linings illustrated 
by Figs. 1256 to 1259 (p. 382). By this 
system, pieces are cut out through the 
thickness of plank, which may be from 
1J in. to 2 in. thick, a mould being made 
for the proper curve at each joint. It 
will be seen that this curve increases from 
the inner to the outer edge of the lining, 
because of the latter being conical. By 
marking out on each side of the plank, 
the conical cuts can be at once made 
through the plank, much labour being 
thus saved. If a bandsaw with a tilting 
table is available, pieces can at once be 
cut accurately to the proper sweep. The 
butt joints of the ring forming the inner 
edge are carefully fitted over a board. 
These are cross-tongued and glued. The 
next layer is fitted and jointed on this, 
the joints being grooved and cross-tongued. 
Each piece is then bored for the insertion 
of at least two screws, to connect with 
the lower ring. On the joints being found 
satisfactory, the screws are released, and 
the joint between the rings and the butt 
joints, with their grooves and tongues, 
are glued, and the screws, re-inserted. 
This process is repeated for each layer. 
Then the soffit is worked true, and the ends 
trued and grooved for connecting with 
the jambs at the springing. This latter 
form of joint was illustrated by Fig. 1465. 
This method is not generally adopted for 
hardwood work, owing to the variation 
of grain distinctly showing when polished, 
but it makes a good sound job for painted 
work. 

Geometrical Splayed Linings Veneered 
for Varnished or Polished Work. 

The example illustrated by Figs. 1631 
to 1634 is for the head of a similar door 
or window opening to that treated of in 
the previous section, except that it is 
assumed here that it is desired to show 
the proper side grain of the material, 



496 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



which, of course, necessitates the preparing 
of a conical - shaped cylinder, and the 
shaping of a veneer, also the staving, 
bending, and gluing the back in a nearly 
similar manner to that explained for the 
example illustrated by Fig. 1629 (p. 494). 
It is therefore only necessary to illustrate 
and explain the method for geometrically 
setting out the veneer. Figs. 1631 and 
1632 show respectively the half elevation 
and half plan of the conical-shaped veneer. 
Continue the splay of the lining (shown by 



a veneer wide enough to obviate jointing. 
In the case of some timbers- -oak, for 
instance — it is sometimes possible to get 
a piece of compass timber, the object being 
to show as far as possible the continuous 
grain. 

Splayed and Panelled Soffit Lining 
for Elliptical - headed Opening. 

The preparation of the elliptical splayed 
and panelled soffit lining for the window 
illustrated at Figs. 1492 to 1494 (p. 457) 




Fig. 1634.— General View of Conical Cylinder 
with Veneer Bent Over and Partly Staved. 



I c, Fig. 1632) till it cuts the centre line 
in d. Then a i d is the plan of quarter 
of the imaginary conical surface. Adopting 
the well-known principle of the develop- 
ment of the cone, with centre d and radius 
i describe the arc I 9, also the arc c 10 ; 
divide the quadrant (Fig. 1631) into any 
number of convenient parts, as shown 
by i' to 9', then mark off distances equal 
to these along the arc I to 9 (Fig. 1633). 
Then c 1, 9 10 represent one half the 
development of the veneer. The other 
half is, of course, exactly the same shape. 
Where possible, it is advisable to obtain 



may now be described. The lining being 
elliptical, the development requires rather 
more elaboration than it would if it were 
semicircular. The method of construction 
consists in building up in three thicknesses 
on a cylinder. One thickness is equal 
to the amount to which the stiles and rails 
project beyond the faces of the panels 
as shown at Fig. 1639 ; the strips forming, 
the stiles being of course cut out to shape. 
The method of setting out for these shapes 
will be described in due course. The 
pieces for the sham stiles are bent over the 
prepared cylinder as shown at Fig. 1639, 



SKIRTINGS, DADOS, PANELWORK, LININGS, ETC. 



497 



and are held in position by staves, which 
are placed at intervals as indicated at 
abc (Fig. 1639). Pieces of similar thick- 
ness are then accurately fitted in between 
the stiles, so as to form sham rails as 
shown at d and e (Fig. 1639). Then a 
thin veneer is bent over. This veneer 
need not be all in one piece, but can be 



and rails. Then, on the back of the veneer, 
the staves are jointed to each other, and 
glued and screwed down as indicated on 
the right-hand half of Fig. 1639. When 
doing this kind of work, many joiners 
consider it advantageous to glue a layer 
of coarse canvas on the back of the staving, 
in order to give additional strength. 




Fig. 1635. 



Fig. 1636 



Fig. /.^ - 
1637. /' 




Fig. 1638. 



formed of three pieces, the joints being 
made along the middle of the two sham 
rails, one of which is shown at d (Fig. 
1639). An advantage in having three 
separate pieces is that then the straight grain 
may be so arranged as to run tangential 
to the centre of the panel, giving a much 
superior finish when the work is stained 
or polished. These veneers are glued and 
bent down to the backs of the sham stiles 



Figs. 1635 to 1638.— Geometrical Setting Out for 
Development of Elliptical Conical Soffit 
Lining. 

Construction of the Cylinder. — As will 
be seen by Fig. 1639, the cylinder is a 
frustum of an elliptical cone. Two ribs 
are made, one for the smaller curve shown 
by f' n', while the larger rib is made to 
the curve g' e' (Fig. 1635). The edges 
of these ribs are bevelled to receive the 
lagging, which must be nailed on as pre- 
viously explained, and as illustrated at 
Fig. 1639, which shows the cylinder as 
being somewhat wider than the lagging, 
to allow the projecting staving to be secured 
temporarily to the lagging with screws. 

Geometrical Construction for Soffit. — Be- 
gin by drawing the springing line a" c', 
and then draw the elliptical curve a' d', 
which is the line of intersection between 
the soffit and the head of the sash frame. 
Continue the springing line to the left, 
then at any convenient point a" erect a 
perpendicular. Project horizontally from 
d' to cut this line at d", and thus a" d" 
is the side elevation of the curve a" d'. 
Now project down and draw the plan 
of this curve as shown by a d. Through 
d draw the line b e parallel to a" c. Then 
b f is the direction of the plan of the axis 



498 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



of the cone. From a set off the plan of 
the angle of the jamb lining as shown by 
a 5. Continue this line till it cuts b e. 
Then b is the plan of the vertex. Project 
up as indicated by b b". At d" set off 
the angle of the crown of the soffit (which 
is here shown as having the same angle 
as in the plan). This will give the line 
e" b", and b" is the side elevation of the 
vertex. Then through b" draw the hori- 
zontal line x y, and, continuing the minor 
axis d' c to cut x y, obtain the elevation 



5", 6" 7", 8", e". From these points 
project horizontally to meet the elevation 
of the generators, obtaining points 5', 6', 
7', 8', e', as shown. Through these points 
the outer curve can be drawn. From the 
points 4" in the springing line, draw the 
elevation and side elevation of an additional 
generator. From 4' to e' straight piece 
has been added, so as to work from the 
level of the vertex. This expedient will 
simplify the working for obtaining the 
development. 




of the vertex b. Dividing a 7 d' into any 
convenient number of equal parts, as here 
shown, through the points a', V, 2', 3', 
draw lines radiating from b. It will be 
an advantage to continue these lines in- 
definitely. We now have the elevation 
of the generators of the conical surface. 
Project horizontally from r, 2', 3", thus 
obtaining points 1", 2", 3", 4" (Fig. 1636). 
From b" draw radiating lines through 
these points, thus obtaining the side eleva- 
tion of the generators. Complete the half- 
plan of the lining as shown by d a 5 e, 
project up, and draw g" e" ; then the 
generators will cut this line in points 



Fig. 1639. — Conical Drum or Cylinder. 



Obtaining the Development of the Soffit. — 
In dealing with an elliptical cone, the 
generators gradually increase from the 
minor to the major axes of the section. 
Therefore, before the development can 
be set out, it is necessary to obtain the 
true length of each generator. Stated in 
geometrical terms, the problem is, " Given 
the plan and elevation of an oblique line, ) 
determine its true length." At right angles 
to the generator 5 b (Fig. 1637), draw i 
b 5', making it equal to g" 5" (Fig. 1636). I 
Join 5' to 5. This gives the true length 
of the generator. The others, shown by 
6', 7', 8' (Fig. 1637), are obtained in a . 



SKIRTINGS, DADOS, PANELWORK, LININGS, ETC. 



499 



similar manner. Now, with compasses set 
to the length 5 4', using b as a centre, 
describe an arc as shown by a, and with 
compasses set to g" 4" (Fig. 1636), using 
5 as centre, draw the arc b. Where the 
arcs intersect at 4, join to b. With 
compass set to the true length 5 5', 



stiff paper to the laggings, to ascertain 
the slope of the development, in this way 
obtaining moulds for marking and cutting 
out the stuff which was to be bent on the 
cylinder. 

Preparing Soffit out of the Solid. — The 
principal points involved in setting out 
and making splayed and panelled soffit 
lining by cutting and working up the 
several pieces out of the solid without any 
bending are as follows. At a (Fig. 1640) 




describe the arc c. With b as centre, 
and with radius 4' 5' (Fig. 1635), using 
4 as centre (Fig. 1638), describe the arc d, 
which gives point 5. Draw 5 b. In 
this manner points 6, 7, 8, and e can 
be obtained, and generators drawn from 
them to B as indicated ; while through the 
points just mentioned the outer curve of 
the development can be drawn as shown. 
By marking off the breadth of the soffit 
on each generator, obtain points a 1, 2, 3, d, 
through which the inner curve of the develop- 
ment can be drawn. This completes the 
outline of the development for one-half 
the soffit. The stiles and muntins can next 
be set out as shown. From this develop- 
ment moulds can be made for the stiles, 
and the shape of the veneers for the panels 
can be ascertained. 

Obtaining Development Direct from 
Cylinder. — For obtaining the development, 
a method which, while not quite scientific, 
is nevertheless practical, and has been 
largely used by joiners in the past, is 
to make a cylinder as true as possible, 
and then to set out the soffit on the lag- 
gings ; then, by applying cardboard or 



^r 



E F 

Fig. 1640.— Setting Out Edge Moulds. 

are shown in plan the ends of the stiles 
of the soffit at the springing. The parallel 
lines ab, CD show the thickness of the 
plank required. Projecting up from c d 
and a b, draw the curves d', k, c', l, b', m, 
a', n, which represent the face moulds 
c', d', l, k, for application to one side of 
plank, a', n, m, b', the face mould for the 
other side of plank. Then, setting a bevel 
to the angle o, c, a, and applying it to a 
plank which has been cut for the joints 
as shown by a b, the rectangle 1, 2, 3, 4 
indicates a piece of plank. By cutting 



500 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 




Fig. 1641.— Conventional View of Plank Set Out 
from Moulds ready for Sawing. 



along the lines a', d', the plank is made 
to assume the form shown by Fig. KU1. 
Now apply and mark the shape of the inner 
face mould on the under side of the plank 
as indicated by a b m n (Fig. 1641). 
Then the outer face mould can be applied 
to the plank and marked as indicated by 
the curves c k and d l (Fig. 1641). The 
piece for the stile can now be sawn out as 
represented at Fig. 1642.. A band saw 
with a tilting table is advantageous for 
doing this kind of sawing. The inner edge 
is worked square to the soffit of the stile 
as represented by ef (Fig. 1643). The 
stiles for the part of soffit adjacent to the 
frame are set out and prepared in a similar 




Fig. 1645. 



Figs. 1644 to 1646 — 
Geometrical Setting 
Out for Head Panel. 



SKIRTINGS, DADOS, PANELWORK, LININGS, ETC. 



501 



manner. The curved stiles, having been 
so far prepared, can be set out, and mortices 
made for the rails, which are then ploughed 
for the panels. The joints at the crown 
are most satisfactorily connected with 
hand-rail screws. 

Setting Out for Panels. — A half-elevation 
of the soffit is indicated at Fig. 1644, the 
framing being shown by dotted lines and 
the panels by solid lines. Having set out 
the half elevation of the panels as shown, 
project across and make a sectional eleva- 
tion as shown at Fig. 1645. As each of 
the moulds for the panels is obtained by 
an identical method, attention may be 
confined to the necessary working for the 
top panel, and setting out for one half will 
be sufficient. Points a, b, c, d (Fig. 1644) 
have been projected across, giving new 
projections of these points at Fig. 1645, 
and the thickness of the panel is represented 
by a b, 1 5. a 3, c b, it should be noted, 
represents the curved face of the panel. 
Inclose this sectional elevation of the panel 
by a rectangle as represented by 1, 2, 3, and 
4. This shows the thickness and the breadth 
of the plank required for the panel. Fixing 
on any convenient points in c b, as d, e, f 
(Fig. 1644), project horizontally to c b 
(Fig. 1645). Then from the points just 
obtained, project at right angles to 1 5 
(Fig. 1645). Make each of these projectors 
the same length from 1 5 as they are 
from a, b in Fig. 1645, and thus obtain 
points d, e, /, and c" (Fig. 1646), through 
which the curve can be drawn as shown. 
Similarly projecting horizontally from d a, 
b c, a to ad (Fig. 1645), the curve passing 
through points 5 c b, a d" (Fig. 1646) 
is obtained. Joining c" to d" gives the 
shape of the mould to apply to the face 
of the plank. For the moulds to apply to 
the edge of the plank, proceed as follows : — 
The points c, d, e, /, b are projected to 
b c (Fig. 1645). Projecting from these 
points parallel to a b, and drawing a line 
at any convenient distance at right angles 
as h k, then measuring from this line 
and making each projector the same length 
as the corresponding one from a b, points 
c', d' ', e' , f ', b' are obtained, giving 
points in the curve, which can be drawn 
through them as shown. The second curve 




-Conventional View of Piece 
with Edge Moulds Applied. 



Plank 





502 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



m n can be drawn parallel, representing 
the thickness of the finished panel. The 



ally the same shape as at 4 d" g 1 (Fig. 
1046), and thus d g, h k (Fig. 1647) repre- 
sents the piece of plank for the top panel 
cut to its first shape 1, 5, being the centre 
line. On the top edge is shown the applica- 




mould for the inner edge is shown by 
d (Fig. 1645), and has been obtained 
from the curve D a (Fig. 1644) in a similar 
manner. At f (Fig. 1646) is shown the 
edge of the plank developed, and the 
outer edge mould applied. The applica- 
tion of the inner edge mould is shown on 
the developed edge of plank at e. At 
r> g 1 5 (Fig. 1647) is shown convention- 



tion of the outer edge mould, while the 
application of the inner edge mould is in- 
dicated by dotted lines. Fig. 1648 repre- 



SKIRTINGS, DADOS, PANELWORK, LININGS, ETC. 



503 



sents the concave face side of the panel 
worked, and at Fig. 1649 the face mould 
cd, l m, applied to the back of the panel. 
The inner and outer edges are worked to 
these curved lines, and then the panel is 
gauged and worked to thickness. This 
completed state is fully shown by Fig. 1650. 

Veneered Splayed Lining: to Opening 

with Circular Head and Segmental 

on Plan. 

At Figs. 1510 and 1511 was shown a 
circle-on-circle window opening with splayed 
linings. Here will be described and illus- 
trated methods of setting out and construct- 
ing the conical soffit lining, which is con- 
structed of a veneer staved or blocked at 
the back. Draw the plan of the face of the 
lining as shown by d, e, f, c, b, a ; con- 
tinue d a, f c, and e b, giving point 0, 
this being the plan of the vertex of the 
conical surface. Projecting up from a 
and b, draw the curve a' V, which, as ex- 
plained in connection with Fig. 1511, 
will probably be a quarter of an ellipse. 
Fix on any convenient points in a' b', 
as 1', 2', 3', and draw radiating lines to 0', 
which are the elevation of generators. 
Projecting down from V, 2', 3', on A b, 
we obtain point 1, 2, and 3. Draw through 
these points lines radiating to 0, which 
are the plans of the generators. It is now 
necessary to draw a side elevation. Make 
x' y' parallel to b o. Project up from 
a, 1, 2, 3, and b, thus obtaining points 
a', 1', 2', 3', and b', through which the 
curve can be drawn, representing the inner 
edge of the lining. Project from 0, obtain- 
ing point 0". From this draw the elevation 
of generators, passing through points V, 2', 
3', 4', b'. As the frustum of a cone on 
which to block and bend the veneer will 
have to be constructed, the plans and 
elevations for the curves of the ribs may 
next be drawn. At 2 in. or 3 in. away 
from d and r, draw G k at right angles 
to h o. Also at a couple of inches from 
B draw l n. Then glnk will repres3nt 
the outline plan of the frustum of a cone 
(commonly called the cylinder) required. 
Continue the generators to g k, giving 
points k, 7, 8, 9, h. Obtain the elevation 



of these points on the side elevation (Fig. 
1653) as shown by k", 7", 8", 9", h". 
From these points in plan project up 
to the elevation, and then make 7' from 
x y the same distance as 7" from x' y', 
and 8' the same distance from x Y as 
8" is from x' y! '. Points 9' h' are obtained 
in the same manner ; then the curve 
drawn through these points as shown 
from k/ to h' is the shape of the outer 
rib, including the thickness of the lagging. 
The curve in elevation from n' to m' is 
obtained by projecting from points in m n, 
where the plans of the generators cut it, 
and from these points project up to the 
elevations of the generators as shown. 
This curve is for the smaller rib, including 
the thickness of the lagging. 

Development for Veneer. — The curve from 
k' to h' is not the quarter of a circle, and as 
it is a section at right angles to the axis of 
the conical surface, the generator o h will be 
the longest, the others gradually decreasing 
to o k. It is therefore necessary to obtain 
the true lengths of each generator. From 
9 draw a line parallel to the axis, then, 
with 9 as centre, and o as radius, obtain 
point a. Project up to x' y', giving point 
a' . Join to 9". Then this line a' 9" is 
the true length of the generator 9. Points 
b b', c c\ and thus the true lengths of the 
other generators, have been obtained in 
the same way as '0 9. With compass set 
to distance k' 7' (Fig. 1652), and g as 
centre, describe the arc 15. With beam 
compass set to 7" c' (Fig. 1653), using 
o as centre, cut the arc 15 (Fig. 1651). 
Again, with radius equal to 7', 8', and 15 as 
centre, describe arc 14 ; and then with 
8" V (Fig. 1653), using o as centre, cut 
arc 14, The remainder of the develop- 
ment of the conical surface is completed 
by the same procedure. The development 
of the line G K having been obtained, now 
by measuring the distances 7" ', 4", 8", 
5" (which are obtained on the- true lengths 
of the generators), from 15 to 4 and 14 to 
5 respectively (Fig. 1654), we obtain points 
in the curve. As all the other distances 
are ascertained by the same expedient, 
there is no difficulty in completing the 
shape of the veneer as shown by the irregular 
curved lines f d and p a (Fig. 1654). The 



504 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 





Fig. 1656. — Horizontal Section of Jamb. 



Fig. 1655. — Conventional View of Drum with Veneer Shaped and Bent. 

conical drum (Fig. 1655) shows the veneer 
cut to shape and bent over ready for staving. 
The method of doing this having been 
previously dealt with, it is not necessary 
to recapitulate. 

Fixing Hardwood Door = casings, etc. 

A general view of a door and casings, etc., 
in hardwood is represented at Fig. 1658, 
and the details showing the method of 
secret fixing are given by Figs. 1656 to 
1659. In each figure, a represents the 
framed ground which is fixed to masonry 
in one of the usual ways. The side grounds 
marked b are fixed to the edges of the framed 
grounds as indicated. Fillets c, with each 
end cut to the form of a dovetail tenon 
d, are prepared and screwed to the back 
of the rail of the framed and panelled 
jamb as shown at c (Figs. 1656 and 1659). 
The jambs are then fixed in position by 
screwing the dovetail ends to the grounds 
as shown at d (Figs. 1657 and 1658).. 
The portions of the stiles forming the 
rebates, having been prepared with slots 

Fig. 1657.-Conventional Sectional View of as shown at E ( Fi g- 1657 > to fit * he « nd . 8 

Portion of Face of Framed and Panelled of the fillets as shown at D, can be glued 

j am b. and fixed into their positions. The archi- 




SKIRTINGS, DADOS, PANELWORK, LININGS, ETC. 



505 




22 



Fig. 1658.— General View of Door. 



506 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



traves are fixed by preparing hardwood 
strips with dovetail edges as represented 



the architrave as shown at G and h (Fig. 
1660), so as accurately to fit the dovetail 
slips. The inner member of the architrave 
is fixed in position first, and the outer 
member h afterwards. Thin glue should be 




Fig. 1661.— Panelled Wainscoting : End Wall showing 
Fireplace and Doorway. 



Fig. 1662. — Enlarged Part Section 
on Line C D (Fig. 1661). 



at f (Fig. 1659). Corresponding slots are brushed on the dovetailed slips and groove, 
made in the back of the two parts forming and, along the tongue edge of the inner section. 



SKIRTINGS, DADOS, PANELWOUK, LININGS, ETC. 



507 




Fig. 1663. — Enlarged Section on 
Line A B (Fig. 1661). 




Fig. 1664.— Enlarged Elevation of Left- 
hand Jamb of Wood Mantel. 



Fig. 1661 shows the treatment of an end wall 
in which a fireplace and doorway occur. 
Fig. 1666 shows a side wall with a three-light 
recessed window in it. Fig. 1663 gives an 
enlarged section on line a b (Fig. 1661), 
showing details of the over-door a, archi- 




Fig. 1665. — Enlarged Part Section on Line E F 
(Fig. 1666). 



Panelled Wainscoting;. trave b, the top portion of the five-panel 

The wainscoting here shown could be door c, and the framed jamb linings d, 

executed either in hardwood polished, r ' or lintel e, framing F, and grounds Q. The top 

in yellow pine painted and finished white, member of the over-door intersects with 






CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



the top member of the wainscoting. Fig. 
1664 represents a part enlarged elevation of 
the left-hand jamb of the wood mantel, also 
portions of the wainscoting. The surbase 
moulding h is stopped by the wood mantel, 
but the skirting intersects with the plinth of 



linings, and the pulley frames. Fig. 1667 
represents the plan of the stone mullion, 
showing boxings for the sash weights. For 
greater convenience in making and fixing, 
it would be better to make the framing 
above the surbase moulding independent of 




Fig. 1666. — Side Wall, with Panelled Wainscoting, showing Three-light Recessed Window. 



the jambs. Fig. 1662 shows an enlarged 
part section on line cd (Fig. 1661) of the 
mantelpiece and the wainscoting over it. 
A brass frame is screwed on to the mantel, 



Fig. 1667.— Plan of Stone Mullion showing 
Boxings. 

breaking the joint between the wood mantel 
and the firebrick lining to the dog grate. 
Fig. 1665 represents an enlarged part sec- 
tion on line e f (Fig. 1666), showing details 
of the cornice, the pilasters, the panelled 



that below, the framing above and below 
being connected by a rebated joint, which 
is covered by the surbase moulding. Figs. 
1661 and 1666 are reproduced to the scale 
of J in. to 1 ft., and Figs. 1663 to 1665, and 
Fig. 1667, to the scale of f in. to 1 ft. For 
Fig. 1665, which represents an enlarged part 
section on line e f (Fig. 1666), see p. 507. 

Wall Panelling and Enriched Cornice 
for Billiard = room or Dining=room. 

Figs. 1668 to 1685 show the preparation 
and fitting of a dado and wainscoting 
suitable for a billiard-room, dining-room, 
hall, or other similar apartment in a first- 
class villa, or in a town mansion or country 
residence. Various hardwoods are used for 
such work, but probably oak is most popular. 
Fig. 1668 shows the side of the room in 
which the doorwav and its fitments are 



SKIRTINGS, DADOS, PANELWORK, LININGS, ETC. 



509 



situated ; Fig. 1669 the side of the room 
containing the fireplace. The dressing 
round the lower portion of the fireplace 
usually consists of marble or other masonry, 



up with pilaster jambs and soffit (see the 
perspective sketch, Fig 1671). The mould- 
ings are worked on the solid of all the stiles 
and rails. The general principles of set- 




Fig. 1668.— Elevation of Door and Portion of Panelling. 



while the frieze directly over the fireplace, 
the cornice shelf, and the overmantel with 
pediment, etc., are constructed of wood. 
The woodwork against the external wall, 
and the inside elevation of the opening 
(illustrated at Fig. 1670), are shown fitted 
with casements and frame having an 
elliptical fanlight, the opening being fitted 



ting out rods, preparing the stuff, setting 
out for mortising and tenoning, mitering, 
and so forth, having been already dealt 
with in other sections of this book, it is 
unnecessary to repeat such details, and 
therefore the accompanying illustrations 
have been prepared with the object of 
showing more particularly the fitting and 



510 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 





i 



n 



o 

o 

o 

o 

"So 
a 

< 



< 

bQ 



s f 



connecting of one part to another, and 
the general fixing of the entire work. It 
is assumed that provision for fixing has 
been made by building-in wood bricks, 
or by some other method in general use. 



A block b (see Fig. 1671).. stub-tenoned and 
notched for the rebated ground and plinth, 
or for the skirting moulding, is fixed to the 
wall and floor. The skirting is fixed by 
being tongued into the floor, and dovetail- 



SKIRTINGS, DADOS, PANELWORK, LININGS, ETC. 



oil 




512 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 




Fig. 1671.— Pilaster, Linings, Soffit, Cove of Ceiling, etc. 



SKIRTINGS, DADOS, PANELWORK, LININGS, ETC. 



513 





mMm m .«ittt &i 



^(§ £^^£^?J ^ 



\sM 



1 




7K 



^ 



7 



liuuuuuuuuuu 



iiiuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuinrr 



OH 



H 



Fig. 1673. — Vertical Section through 
Pilaster, Mouldings, and Cornice. 



Fig. 1672. — Enlarged Detail of Pilaster, Cornice, 
Frieze, etc. 



22* 



5 1 4 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



grooved so as to slide on to the hardwood 
dovetail slip shown at d. The skirting 
moulding is ploughed on the under edge p 
to receive the top edge of the plinth, or 
of the skirting. The rebated ground h 
is next screwed to the back of the plinth 
mould as indicated at k. Then, the mould 
and the ground being placed in position, 
the bottom edge of the latter is held by 
the short stub -tenons in the tops of the 
blocks, and is nailed on through the rebated 
portion into the wall ground, firmly fixing 
the plinth. The bottom edge of the dado 
is rebated, leaving a barefaced tongue in 



to the ground G (Fig. 1676) ; the fixing 
being hidden by the astragal mould c, 
which is fixed either with screws and slots, 
or preferably by dowelling to the top of 
the upper framing. The ground e having 
been screwed to the back of the curved 
facia, the upper part of the ground is 
nailed into the ground G. The ground e, 





Fig. 1675.— Method of Fixing Top Edge of 

Lower Framing, Dado Moulding, and 

Bottom Edge of Upper Framing. 



Fig. 1674.— Method of Fixing Plinth and Bottom 
Edge of Framing. 

the front, and can then be dropped into 
position as shown at l (Fig. 1674). The 
top edge of the dado frame is sufficiently 
wide to allow of its being screwed to the 
wall ground G as indicated at n (Fig. 1675), 
these screws being afterwards hidden by the 
dado moulding. The ground M having been 
screwed to the dado moulding at n, these 
are placed in position with the tongue 
of the ground fitting into the top of the 
dado as shown. The ground m is then 
fixed to the wall ground G by nailing through 
the rebate as shown at R. The dado mould 
and the ground R have a groove formed be- 
tween them, in which the barefaced tongue 
on the bottom edge of the upper framing 
o fits as shown. The top end of the upper 
framing is rebated to receive the bottom 
edge of the curved facia d, and is screwed 




Fig. 1676.— Method of Fixing Cornice to the Top 
of the Framing. 

projecting above the ground g, forms a 
rebate at the back, allowing the bottom 
ends of the blocks f to fit into the rebate. 
These blocks are secured to the back of 
the mouldings forming the cornice, and 
then the top ends of the blocks are notched 
and nailed as indicated. Figs. 1677 and 
1678 show the method of fixing the astragal 
moulding, curved facia, and top cornice 
moulding. A wall-ground f, which has 
been rebated on the top edge and splayed 



SKIRTINGS, DADOS, PANELWORK, LININGS, ETC. 



515 



on the bottom, is fixed as shown. To 
this the astragal moulding should be 
fixed with screws and slots or dowels 
and screws, inserted from the upper part 
of the round. These are out of sight. 
The bottom edge of the curved facia 
fits into a rebate made in the ground G, 




Fig. 1673 a vertical section taken through 
the centre, to indicate the method of 
building up and fixing. Fig. 1679 shows a 
horizontal section through the bottom panel 
of the pilaster ; Fig. 1680, a horizontal 
section taken through the pilasters and 
upper panelling. These views show in 
section how the pilasters are mitered, jointed, 
and tongued at the angles, and rebated to 
fit against and between the stiles of the 



Fig. 1677 




Figs. 1677 and 1678. — Method of Fixing Main Cornice under Cove of Ceiling. 




and is fixed to it by screws. The cornice 
is fixed by screwing the member b to 
the ground G, and then vertical blocks c 
are screwed to the member e. Bracketing 
pieces d are screwed to the top moulding 



Fig. 1679. — Enlarged Horizontal Section through 
Lower Panel of Pilaster. 

as indicated, and should also be glued 
and blocked ; then the bracketing pieces 
are nailed to the vertical block c, and 
these in their turn can be nailed to the wall. 
The carved egg-and-tongue moulding is 
fixed by means of gluing and dowelling as 
indicated at h (Fig. 1678). Figs. 1672 
and 1673 show enlarged details of a pilaster ; 
Fig. 1672 representing an elevation, and 



Fig. 1681. — Enlarged Section through 
Upper Curved Pilasters. 



framing. At b (Fig. 1680) is shown the 
method of connecting the pilasters inter- 
secting at an internal angle. Fig. 1681 is 
a section through the top of the pilasters 
that have carved panels. Fig. 1682 is a 
conventional detail view showing the plinth 
of the dado grooved, and the floor also 
grooved, as represented at a, b, and c, 
to receive the plinth forming the base of 
the pilaster. Fig. 1683 is a conventional 



516 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



view showing principally the back of one 
of these bases. In the same figure, tongues 
are shown for fitting into A, B, and c (Fig. 
1682), with the moulding scribed to fit 
the mouldings of the plinth. Various ex- 
pedients for fixing these bases, by screwing 
fillets to the inside of the base and screw- 
ing these fillets to the floor, will suggest 
themselves. Then a rebated fillet is fixed 
to the inside of the moulding, a portion of 
which is shown at a (Fig. 1683) and in 
section at a (Fig. 1673). The bottom ends 
of the lower pilasters are made to fit ac- 



The method just described for the fixing 
of the lower pilaster is adopted for the upper 
pilasters, the bottom end of each being 
connected as indicated at b, c, d, and e 
(Fig. 1673). Fig. 1685 is a conventional 
sectional view of the bottom left-hand 
corner of the door, and of the base of the 
adjacent pilaster, etc. 

Framed and Panelled Linings with 
Boxing Shutters to a Doorway. 

Fig. 1686 is the half outside and half 
inside elevation of a circular-headed door 





Fig. 1683. 




Fig. 1682 



Figs. 1682 and 1683. — Methods of Fixing Base of Fig. 1684. — Back of Pilaster with Fixing Buttons 
Pilaster. Screwed On. 



curately behind the base moulding, and 
are prepared with a barefaced tongue so 
as to fit into the rebate of the fillet a. The 
pilasters are also held to the edges of the 
framing by buttons, two of these (a a, 
Fig. 1684) being shown screwed on to the 
back of the returned edges of the pilasters ; 
and buttons are screwed on to the edges 
of the framing as shown at b b (Fig. 1682). 
When the pilaster is placed against the 
framing, and slid down into its base, the 
buttons a and b clip together, and thus 
firmly hold the pilaster to the framing. 




Fig. 1685.— Conventional Sectional View showing 

Bottom Left Corner of Door Base of Architraves, 

Pilaster, etc. 



SKIRTINGS, DADOS, PANELWORK, LININGS, ETC. 



517 




Fig. 1686 




Fig. 1688. 

Fig. 1686. — Half In- 
side and Half Outside 
Elevation of a Door 
with Marginal Lights, 
Panelled and Splayed 
Linings, and Boxing 
Shutters. 

Fig. 1687.— Horizontal 
Section. 

Fig. 1688. — Vertical 
Section. 



518 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



opening. The inside of the opening is 
finished with framed and panelled splayed 
bottom lining a (Fig. 1686) ; the interme- 
diate portion b is framed and panelled 




Fig. 1689. — Enlarged Detail of Horizontal 
Section at A (Fig. 1687). 

with boxing shutters 1J in. thick. As will 
be seen, these are provided for covering 
the glass portion of the door, thus taking 
the place of a lifting shutter, being more 




Fig. 1690. — Conventional View of Brickwork at 
Upper Part of Opening. 

convenient. The head lining has a rail c 
(Fig. 1686) following the curved head of 
the door frame, but the outer edges of 
these linings are square. The curved rail 



of the head lining follows the splay all round, 
and hence its outer surface is conical, but 
very flat, and thus not necessitating any 
complicated geometrical setting out. It 
should be cut to the circular form out of 
a board about J in. thicker than the other 
stiles of the framing, having a joint 





H 



ML 




Fig. 1691. — Enlarged Detail of Vertical Section. 

at the crown as shown. Then the bevel 
should be marked on each end ; then by 
running a gauge on each edge from the lines, 
on the ends, the conical surface can be 
formed by planing down to these gauge 
lines. The joint at the crown may be 
formed by grooving and tonguing, by 
halving together, or by making the muntin 



SKIRTINGS, DADOS, PANELWORK, LININGS, ETC. 



519 



of a piece of thicker material, so that a 
projecting portion of it can run down 
behind the stile, and be screwed to each 
half. Another way of making the curved rail 
would be to form it of two thicknesses glued 
and screwed together, the front portion 
being in two parts and the back in three. 
In either case it would, of course, be ploughed 
to receive the panels, and at the springing 
it would be stub-mortised to receive the 
tenons of the rails. The stiles and top 
rail meeting on the splay would have to 
be mitered together as illustrated at d 
(Fig. 1686) ; the most satisfactory method 
of jointing here probably would be by an 
open mortice and tenon. From the illus- 
trations it will be clear that the face side 
of the panel is a twisted surface, its square 



edges being in a vertical plane and its 
circular edge starting conically ; but for 
the example illustrated it will be found 
that stuff about If in. thick would be 
sufficient. This would require jointing up, 
the grain running in the direction as shown 
at Fig. 1686 ; then, with the bevel set to the 
splay of the linings applied at the spring- 
ing and crown end of the panels, and run- 
ning a gauge line round the curved edge, 
the face side of the panel could be worked 
to shape. To readers who have perused 
preceding descriptions, the general construc- 
tion of the door, shutters, etc., will be clear. 
Fig. 1690 is a conventional view showing 
part of the brickwork of the arch and the 
reveal prepared to receive linings and 
shutters. 



PARTITIONS AND SCREENS. 



Setting- Out Panelled and Moulded 
Framed Partition. 

For the panelled and moulded framing of 
which an elevation is shown by Fig. 1692, 



a rod 13 ft. long by 11 in. wide, and proceed 
to set out the plans of Fig. 1692, seen on rod 
2 (Fig. 1693), the stiles and muntins being 
4J in. wide. First square across the rod two 
lines 12 ft. apart. Draw four lines parallel 





















































































B- 




1 f" 

-B 




-l 

A~- 












—A 























































* 

































12—0- 



Fig. 1692. — Elevation of Panelled and Moulded Framing. 




» -2 8- 



Fig. 1693. — Sectional Plans on Width Rod of Panelled and Moulded Framing. 

one piece of deal framing is required, 12 ft. with each other, l|in. apart, to represent the 
by 10 ft. by 2 in., three panels in height, thickness of the framing. From the right- 
moulded both sides, with a door at one end, hand end mark off 4J in. for the outer stile 
with rebated and beaded joints. First take b (Fig. 1693). Form the rebate with mould 

520 



PARTITIONS AND SCREENS. 



521 




Fig. 1694.— Enlarged Section on Line A A (Fig. 1692) 







Fig. 1695.- Enlarged Section on Line B B (Fig. 1692). 




Fig. 1696.— Vertical Sections on Height Rod of Panelled and Moulded Framing. 



(Fig. 1694). When a mortice lock is to be 
used, the rebate must be formed out of the 
centre to enable a half-rebated lock to be 
let into the door ; but sufficient strength 
must be left for the bead to form the stop. 
Set off from the rebate 2 ft. 8 in., the width 
of the door, and fill in 4J in. for the stiles 
and 4J in. the centre for the muntin, leaving 
9f in. sight for the panel. Fill in the stile of 
the framing next the door, and also the left- 
hand outer stile, with moulds (Fig. 1694). 
Now divide the space between into six 
panels as shown. Set these spaces out 
accurately, and fill in the muntin with 
the mould (Fig. 1695). Fill in the lines 
representing the panels, also the moulding 
on both sides. To show what is required, 
it is sufficient to fill in one panel with the 
section of the moulding, a (Fig. 1693) 
may now be set out from b, as the plan for 
each is the same, except for the two panels 
over the door. The hanging and shutting 
stiles carry the 4|-in. line to the top rail. 
Turn the rod over to the other side, and set 
out the sections as shown, and to figured 
dimensions, c (Fig. 1696) is a section 
through the framing ; d is a section where 
the door occurs. Fig. 1697 represents 
the quantity board. In a big shop, the 
foreman joiner or setter out takes off the 
material, books it, and hands it to the 
chalk-line foreman, who marks out from the 
board all the material required. The board 
is then handed to the machinist, and finally 



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Fig. 1697.— Quantity Board. 

to the material clerk, to be entered in the 
prime cost account. First take ofE the 



522 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



framing, stiles, rails, and muntins, then the 
panels, the door stiles, etc., in the same order. 
The whole of the mouldings may be booked 
as one item if taken from a stock pattern, 




Fig. 1698.— Half Elevation of Glazed Partition. 

but if the moulding is to be prepared to a 
special section it is best ordered in single 
lengths, sufficient to mould one panel. Odd 
lengths of stuff can be used up in this way 
without waste. Any remarks necessary 
should be added in the space reserved for the 



purpose at the bottom of the board as shown 
(Fig. 1697). 

Setting- Out Glazed Partition. 

For the glazed partition shown in half 
elevation by Fig. 1698, one piece of deal 
framing is required, 9 ft. by 10 ft. 8 in. by 
2 in., three panels in height ; the lower 
panels being square, the two upper panels 
divided into six squares, each with moulded 
bars, etc., for glass ; a door to match to be 
formed in the centre with rebated and beaded 
joints, and prepared for a 6-in. mortice lock 
(half rebated). Take a rod 12 ft. long by 
11 in. wide, and set out the plan and sec- 
tions of Fig. 1698, which shows the elevation 
of the glazed partition, e (Fig. 1699) repre- 
sents the plan below the transom rail, and 
shows the square framing and the position of 
the bars and diminish to stiles. The dotted 
lines on the rails in the elevation show the 
diminish, f (Fig. 1699) is a plan above the 
transom rail, and is set out from e, the lines 
being perpendicular from the middle rail 
upwards. The hanging and shutting stiles 
are carried up the diminished width above 
the transom, forming a muntin, and the 
transom rail is cut as shown in Fig. 1698. 
Determine the position of the door, and set 
out as before ; the diminish to stiles is set 
off from the inside edge in each case. Note 
that the openings for the glass are equal in 
width, which should be obtained as follows : 
First set out with moulds, illustrated by 
Figs. 1694 and 1695 (p. 521), the position 
of the muntins and stiles. Place the bars 
exactly in the centre of the muntins. The 
panel width works out at 7 in. sight ; 2 in. 
on each side to the centre of the muntins 
makes 11 in. ; J in. deducted on each side 
for the half thickness of the bar leaves 10 in. 
sight. Now, 10 in. is wanted for the squares 
on each side. The stiles must therefore be 
diminished 1 in., and the required 10 in. 
is obtained. This will therefore be the 
width of all the openings above the transom 
rail ; and the side framings below the open- 
ings in the door work out at 11 in. g and h 
(Fig. 1700) are sections through the side 
framings and where the door occurs. Fig. 
1694 is an enlarged detail of the door on the 
line a a (Fig. 1692), and Fig. 1695 is an en- 
larged detail on the line b b (Fig. 1692).- 



PARTITIONS AND SCREENS. 



523 



Set these sections out in the same manner 
as before. Make a quantity board (Fig. 



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1703), as described in the previous para- 
graph, and book the material on it as 
shown; 



Hall Screen with Door. 

Fig. 1704 shows an elevation of a hall 
screen, the approximate size of which may 
be taken as 10 ft. high by 8 ft. wide. Fig. 
1705 shows a vertical section, and it will be 




Fig. 1702. — Enlarged Section on Line B B 
(Fig. 1698). 

observed that the thickness of the two outer 
jambs above the transom c is reduced 1 in. 
on the rear side d ; while the three muntins 
epg (Fig. 1704) are worked to the same 
thickness (their finished sizes being 3 in. by 
3 in.), and are wrought quite square.* They 



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Off and /pruned ,~tdJxn to <pil*jU 



Fig. 1703. — Quantity Board. 

are simply rebated on the rear side to re- 
ceive the leaded lights and bead, and are 
tenoned into the transom c and curved rail 
h (Fig. 1705), the top and rear sides of which 
are also rebated in the same way as for the 



524 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



muntins. Fig. 1706 gives a horizontal sec- 
tion, showing the outer jamb A and door 
jamb b, which are worked from 4-in. by 4-in. 
and 4-in. by 3-in. stuff respectively. The 



and muntins. On both the front and the 
rear sides the top rail has sunk and moulded 
spandrils, as shown at J (Fig. 1704), and this 
rail, when fixed to its proper position, sets 




1706. 



Fig. 1704. -Elevation of Hall Screen. Fig. 1705.— Vertical Section of Hall Screen. 
Fig. 1706.— Horizontal Section of Hall Screen. 



top rails i (Fig. 1705) are tongued f in. into 
the jambs and muntins, and are cut, wrought, 
shaped, grooved, and ovolo-moulded from 
an 11 -in. by 2 -in. sound plank, and framed 
flush with the rear sides of the outer jambs 



back from the face of the screen 1 in., which 
allows for the moulding k to be mitered and 
returned to jambs and muntins as shown, 
as is also the neck moulding l, which should 
be grooved Jin. into the jambs and muntins, 



PARTITIONS AND SCREENS. 



525 



the whole piece of framing being afterwards 
strengthened on the rear side by the top 
moulding m, which is glued and planted 
on (Fig. 1705). All the framing below the 
transom c is rebated and beaded to receive 
the door, sidelights, and under-side framing, 
all of which is 2 in. thick, and is finished 
flush to the rear side of the framing, the 
front side of which is ovolo- moulded. The 
sidelights and the top portion of the door 
are also rebated for glass, and ovolo-moulded, 
and are constructed as shown in the eleva- 
tion. All the bars, except those framed 
into the upper edge of the middle rail of 
the door, should be mortised and tenoned 
through both stiles and rails, and glued and 



round-headed screws. The screen may be 
executed in good yellow deal or pine twice 
sized and twice varnished with good copal. 
If it is made in either oak or mahogany it 
may be oiled or French-polished. The door 
should be hung with one and a half pairs of 
4-in. brass butts, with steel washers, and 
fitted with a good 6-in. mortice lock. Good 
bold brass handles and finger-plates should 
be chosen, and the top portion of the screen 
above the transom should be fitted with 
leaded lights glazed with tinted glass ; tinted 
and white Muranese glass, bedded between 
strips of chamois leather, being used for the 
door and for the sidelights. Fig. 1709 is an 
enlarged section of the architrave. 




Fig. 1707.— Enlarged Horizontal Section of Framing of Hall Screen. 





Fig. 1708.— Enlarged Section 
of Bar of Hall Screen. 



Fig. 1709. — Enlarged Section 
of Architrave of Hall Screen. 



Fig. 1710.— Enlarged Section through 
Top Portion of Middle Rail to Door. 



wedged in the usual manner. The ends 
should be simply stumped into the central 
mitered bars, and screwed through the re- 
bates. The lower panels are moulded and 
raised as shown, a indicating the outer jamb, 
b the door jamb, o o the stiles of the framing, 
p the panel (Fig. 1707). The bottom portion 
of the door is in every particular identical 
with the corresponding part of the side- 
framing, and has diminished stiles (see Fig. 
1698). Fig. 1710 shows an enlarged section 
of the upper portion of the middle rail of the 
door ; q indicating the rail ; R moulding 
with returned ends, sunk into and planted 
on to rail, with dentils cut in the bead s, and 
fixed through the rail with screws ; t mould- 
ing with returned ends, glued and planted on 
to cover screws ; h the shaped apron (see 
also elevation, Fig. 1704). Fig. 1708 is an 
enlarged section of the bar to the sidelights 
and the top portion of the door. The 
moulded fillets u should be fixed with brass 



Corridor Screen and Door. 

The screen and door shown in Figs. 1711 
and 1712 is suitable for a public office or 
building or for a private dwelling. If it is 
used for a dwelling, stained and leaded glass 
of good design should be inserted ; but for 
a public building, the top sashes should be 
filled with quarter-plate polished glass, while 
the doorlight and sidelights will be of em- 
bossed glass, with a suitable design or letter- 
ing advertising the business that is carried 
on. Fig. 1711 shows the front view. The 
height is 9 ft. 8 in., the width 6 ft. The 
door jambs and wall jambs are 3 J in. by 
5 in., rebated for the door and sidelights, 
grooved for the raised panels, and ovolo- 
moulded on the front edges, and beaded on 
the back edges. The transom is 7 in. by 
4 in., sunk double moulded, and rebated for 
the top and lower sashes and door. The 
jambs are stub-tenoned to the transom, 



526 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 

A 



E- 




T 
J 



*0 



J- 



-H 



1 



Fig. 1711. Fig. 1712. 

Fig. 1711. — Front Elevation of Corridor Screen and Door. 
Fig. 1712.— Vertical Section of Corridor Screen and Door. 

and also connected by short rails, which are the jambs, and is double moulded, rebated, 

tenoned and scribed to them, forming divi- beaded, and tenoned to the transom (see 

sions for the side panels and lights. The Fig. 1713), and it is connected to the top 

semicircular frame is of the same section as rail with a short mullion, which is mortised, 



^\ 



PARTITIONS AND SCREENS. 



527 






ho 



__ a 







1 














if 








i 





I 

w 




tenoned, and scribed to both members. The 
jambs above the transom are stub-tenoned 
to the latter, and mortised to receive the top 



rail. The latter is secured to a joist above* 
while the wall jambs are fixed to wood or 
breeze bricks in the usual way. The two 



>28 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY 



side and three top frames are If in. by 2 in., 
moulded and rebated, and fitted with loose 
beads. The door is 6 ft. 6 in. high by 
3 ft. 3 in. wide. It has diminished stiles, 
which are 7 in. and 5 in. wide respectively 
at top and bottom, by 2 in. thick. The 
upper rail is 5 in. wide. The top panel of 
the door is moulded, rebated, and fitted 
with shifting beads, fixed with brass cups 
and screws. The lock and bottom rails are 
each 9 in. wide, grooved to receive the raised 
and moulded panel, and mortised, tenoned, 
and wedged to the stiles. The shoulders 



apron is fixed to the door, and capped with 
a moulded rail with return ends, as shown. 
Fig. 1713 shows a section taken on a b, 
while Fig. 1714 represents a vertical section 
taken through the side panel and short rails, 
showing the method of construction at the 
lower end of the panel at d (Fig. 1711). 
Figs. 1715 and 1716 respectively represent 
horizontal sections on e f and g h, showing 
in enlarged detail the sashes, panels, etc. 
The door is hinged on three 4-in. brass butts, 
fitted with pull handles, brass mortice lock, 
and finger-plates This class of door is 







Fig. 1717.— Section of Vestibule Screen on 
Line C C (Fig. 1722). 

between the middle rails and stiles are 
diminished as illustrated, and in the case 
of the lock edge of the door the middle rail 
and stile are connected by twin double 
mortices and tenons with a solid haunching 
(as illustrated and explained in connection 
with Fig. 1196, p. 360), so as to make 
provision for a mortice lock, which is 
the kind that would be likely to be 
provided and fixed. A suitable moulding 
is fixed round the panel, and a shaped 



Fig. 1719.— Section of Vestibule Screen on 
Line E E (Fig. 1722). 

often hung with a patent single or double 
spring hinge, the former closing the door by 
its spring action after opening, while the latter 
allows of the door being opened both inside 
and outside, the action of the hinge clos- 
ing it automatically. The material may be 
pitchpine or red deal, sized and varnished, 
or painted and grained oak ; or, if the 
work is executed in hardwood, as teak, 
mahogany, or oak, it may be finished in oil 
or French-polished. 



\ 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



Method of 
Obtaining True jfi. 
Shape of Ribs. 




Half Section Half Lonqitudi- 

through Centre. nal Elevation. 



12 CONSTRUCTION OF A BELL OR VENTILATING TURRET FRAMED TO ROOF. 



PARTITIONS AND SCREENS. 



529 



Vestibule Screen. 

The screen shown by Figs. 1717 to 1724 
is easily adaptable to any opening of reason- 
able width and height. The panels being 
equally spaced out, they can be reduced or 
extended in width at pleasure, the only dif- 
ference being that the two doors will neces- 
sarily become one only in the case of any ex- 
cessive reduction taking place in the width. 
The height and width shown in the details 
are 10 ft. 4 in. (or, adding a 7-in. joist and 
1-in. flooring board, 11 ft.) and 8 ft. respec- 
tively. The height, if so required, could be 
reduced either by omitting the rough beam 
and cornice or by shortening the fanlight, 
The tendency of vestibule and entrance-hall 
screens being towards excessive height, a 
subsill is introduced with the object of 
rendering the height less conspicuous ; 
and if a dado is constructed, it should 
line up as much as possible with this sub- 
sill. The screen will look well if exe- 
cuted in oak or mahogany ; but if deal is the 
material selected, it should be painted rather 
than stained and varnished. The frame- 
work is of 5-in. by 3J-in. section, with the 
exception of the transom, which is 5 in. by 
4 in., and dentilled ; but as these dentils 
are rather expensive to cut, the transom 
may, if cost is a consideration, be run 
straight through. The doors, fanlights, and 
sidelights are of 2-in. stuff, rebated for glass, 
and moulded. The circular sinkings at the 
heads of the fanlights are | in. deep, cham- 
fered J in. down and on. The doorway is 
3 ft. 9 in. wide, and fitted with a pair of 
doors, which are less unwieldy than a single 
door, although, for ordinary purposes, the 
one door affords sufficient passage room. 
The wall upright may be of a lighter section 
than the other timber (the illustration shows 
it 5 in. by 3 in.), but this is not absolutely 
essential ; it can either be of the same size 
as the other timbers, and fixed directly 
against the wall to wood bricks, or be of 
lighter section, and fixed to grounds ; the 
latter method obviates the necessity of 
grooving for plaster. The wood panels are 
raised, 1J- in. thick at the centre, and re- 
duced to J in. at the edges, the stiles and 
rails being rebated to receive them ; they 
are secured in the rebates by a moulding 
mitered round on the inside. The upper 
23 



panels and fanlight may be glazed with leaded 
lights, or plain or bevelled plate glass, the 
latter being the most suitable, owing to the 
rather severe character of the design. To 



Fig. 1721.— Vertical 

Section of Vestibule 

Screen. 




Fig. 1720.— Section of 

Vestibule Screen on 

Line B B (Fig. 1722). 



form the cornice, rough brackets are fixed at 
intervals to receive the plaster, a suitable 
key being formed on the head of the screen 
by the bead, as shown in the detail. For 
sections on the lines indicated by lettering 
in the usual way on the elevation shown bv 
Fig. 1722, see Figs. 1717 to 1721. 



530 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



Jj5ft?&fe#^<i4^ ^ " ' ' -— —- ~ — ,y y/////////. 




Fig. 1722.— Elevation of Vestibule Screen. 




Fig. 1723.— Sectional Plan of Vestibule Screen. 



PARTITIONS AND SCREENS. 



531 



Vestibule Framing and Swing Doors 

for the Main Entrance of a Large 

Building. 

A more important case of vestibule 
framing with swing doors than either of 
those preceding is here illustrated by Figs. 
1725 to 1748. The framing is prepared and 
fitted to an opening with an elliptical stone 
arch springing from imposts as illustrated. 



with the specification clause to the effect that 
" The material and workmanship must be the 
very best of their respective kinds." It is 
almost superfluous to state that joinery 
of this character would be made of hard- 
wood. It is necessary, in jobs of this 
description, for the setter-out to give some 
consideration to the arrangement of the 
fitting together of various parts where 
carving is introduced. The carving is not 




Fanlight 




LJ 



Fig. 1724.— Enlarged Section 

of Head of Vestibule 

Screen. 



The whole is designed for the treatment 
of a vestibule, the walls of which are of 
masonry, there being a plinth or skirting at 
the bottom, and a surbase, or dado moulding; 
the next portion of the wall finishing with 
an intermediate cornice and fascia, and 
above this being a frieze and a cornice 
connected with the ceiling (but not shown). 
It will be seen that the main horizontal 
members of the wood framing are of similar 
section to those of the masonry, with which 
some of them intersect. The methods of 
construction which will be described and 
illustrated are amongst the best adopted 
for first-class work, so as to comply fully 



of course, introduced as specimens of joinery, 
but at the same time it is part of the treat- 
ment of the whole design, forming the 
ornament of panels, friezes, etc. It falls to 
the task of the joiner to plough and tongue 
and fit together the various parts, and, 
when these operations are found satis- 
factory, to hand over to the carver the 
pieces he has to deal with, which can be 
afterwards fixed in their respective positions 
in the piece of framing. It must here be 
noted that pieces of wood carved and 
" stuck on " are not here illustrated, nor 
would they be tolerated for a job of this 
description. Of course sometimes the carver 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY 




^ : 



Fig. 1725.— Perspective View of a Portion of Vestibule Framing seen from Outside, 



PARTITIONS AND SCREENS. 



533 




Fig. 1726. — Outside Elevation of Vestibule Framing with Swing Doors. 



hMS3^n^31S=3l3 



4J^ 







Fig. 1727.— Half Horizontal Section through Lower Pilasters and Panels, and Half Horizontal Section 

through Upper Pilasters and Glass Panels. 

would not commence any of his work until in the form of elevations and sections ; and 
the joiner had finished, so far as bench in addition, where there are mouldings and 
work was concerned. similar members of special design, full- 
Setting Out. — Usually, for important work, sized sections are supplied ; while full-size 
architects supply enlarged detail drawings sketches for carvings are commonly provided. 



534 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



From the specification and the drawings 
the rods would be set out. Naturally it 
would be well for the actual opening to be 
tested for measurement, in case of any 
discrepancy having crept in. One rod 
should be set out, giving a horizontal section 
at a level through the bottom panels of the 
doors and lower pilasters ; another section 
should be given at a level of the upper 



cornice of pediment, the tympanum, and the 
horizontal cornice, showing the relation of 
this with the pediment, etc. Whole eleva- 
tions, or at least halves, drawn full size, 
and in connection with the vertical sections, 
should be set out for the pediments at the 
tops of doors, dado moulds and apron panels, 
quadrant corners, etc. On these should be 
indicated, by coloured pencils or other 




Fig. 1728. — Enlarged Horizontal Section through Lower Pilasters and Panels. 



pilasters and glass panels of doors, similar 
to section Fig. 1727. It would be very 
convenient to have a third horizontal 
section taken through the frieze. Probably 
the best plan would be to have the rod 
sufficiently wide, so that these horizontal 
sections could be side by side, and thus 
their relation to each other be apparent at 
a glance. The following vertical sections 
would be necessary. The rod for the vertical 
section should show a section taken through 
the centre of the pilaster to the top of the 
cornice as Fig. 1730. Another section should 
be taken through the centre of one of the 
swing doors and head of frame as repre- 
sented at Fig. 1731. The construction of the 



means, the methods of connecting the 
pediments, mouldings, carved panels, and 
such parts, to the stiles and rails ; also the 
sizes and number of tenons connecting the 
stiles and rails. 

The Frame. — As will be seen, this consists 
of a head and six jambs, each 2 J in. thick. 
There being pilasters on each side, the 
central jambs are distant from each other 
to the extent of 4 in., as represented at a 
(Figs. 1728 and 1729). Beyond the jamb 
at each end is a ground G ; these are fixed 
to the masonry. The central jambs are 
connected and stiffened to each other by 
blocks screwed between, as represented 
at a, b, and c (Figs. 1730 and 1735). The 




Fig. 1729.— Enlarged Horizontal Section through Upper Pilasters and Glass Panels. 



fixed doors being similar in many respects 
to that of the swing doors, it would only be 
necessary to show the section taken through 
the marginal bars. This of course might be 
done adjacent to the section taken through 
the swing doors. Another vertical trans- 
verse section is taken through the crown 
of the soffit of the arch, giving sections 
of the head of the frame, the fanlight, the 



jambs at each end are also similarly con- 
nected to the ground G. The central 
jambs are hollowed and moulded for the 
hanging stiles of the swing doors. The 
other jambs are rebated for the fixed doors, 
and also ploughed to receive a tongued slip 
a (Fig. 1729), which forms a member of the 
moulding, and keeps the fixed doors in 
position. The angles of the jambs are 



PARTITIONS AND SCREENS. 



535 




Fig. 173C. Fig. 1731. 

Fig. 1730. — Enlarged Vertical Section through Centre of Pilasters (Fig. 1725). 

Fig. 1731. — Vertical Section through Centre of Swing Door (Fig. 1725). 

Fig. 1732. — Enlarged Detail of a Portion of Swing Door, Pilaster, Cornice, and Fixed Door. 



536 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



moulded and mitered so as to intersect with 
similar mouldings stuck on the head, to 
which the jambs are connected by mortice 
and tenon joints as illustrated at a (Fig. 
1733). By reference to Fig. 1726, and d, e, 



clearly shown in the illustrations. A deal 
fillet f is fixed to the head of the frame 
(Fig. 1733) ; then to this fillet, and the head 
of the frame, the moulding e is fixed by the 
insertion of screws through the fillet to the 




Fig. 1733.— Enlarged 
Conventional Sec- 
tional Detail show- 
ing Joints between 
Jambs and Head 
and Construction 
of Cornice. 



and f (Fig. 1732), it will be noticed that the 
angle mouldings of the jambs are stopped 
for the purpose of leaving square surfaces 
for the base and mouldings of the lower 
part of the pilasters to butt against. The 
jambs are ploughed to receive tongues, 
which are inserted in corresponding plough 
grooves made in the back of the stiles of the 
pilasters, as represented in section at Figs. 
1728 and 1729, and c, d (Fig. 1733). The 
bottoms of the jambs are fixed to the stone 
step or floor by the insertion of two copper 
dowels in each. 

Cornice. — The different pieces of this, 
and the methods of connecting them, are 



Fig. 1734. — Conventional View of Portion of 
Cornice which Breaks Forward over Pilaster. 

back of the moulding. The members G, H, K, 
L, M, can be screwed together, and the cornice 
on each side and the fascia connected 
together by cutting cradling pieces between, 
and fixing these by a few screws, and gluing 
blocks to the cradling pieces and backs of 
the members, as represented at n and o 
(Fig. 1733). In this way the cornice could 



PARTITIONS AND SCREENS. 



537 



be built up of three main sections, and thus 
be easily placed in position. Fig. 1734 re- 
presents principally a back view of one of 
the portions of the cornice which breaks 
out over the pilaster. The external angles a 
are shown as mitered, glued, and blocked on 
the inside. The intersections of the mould- 
ings at the internal angles are shown as 
scribed, not mitered, although of course 
either method may be adopted. 

Pilasters. — The lower pilasters have stiles 
and rails with mouldings stuck on the solid, 
and are connected together by stubbed 
mortices and tenons. The panels are sunk 
and worked with a moulded splay as repre- 
sented in the sections. The stiles are 
sufficiently long to run down to the floor 
so as to allow of the moulded plinth with its 
mitered returns being glued to them. The 
plinth is further secured to them by the 
insertion of a few screws from the backs. 
The mitres of the plinths, if not dovetailed, 
should be grooved and tongued, and of 
course glued. The lower pilaster is fixed 
in position by screwing on buttons at the 
back which have rebated ends, the tongue 
portions fitting into rebates or grooved 
blocks fixed between the jambs, as repre- 
sented at l (Figs. 1730 and 1735). The 
heads of the lower pilasters are fixed to a 
block between the jambs by a couple of 
screws being inserted obliquely, as indicated 
at d (Fig. 1730). The mouldings at the heads 
of the lower pilasters have thicknessing 
pieces fixed at the back as shown at Fig. 
1730, and to these buttons e are screwed 
the tongues which fit into grooves made 
in the block b (Figs. 1730 and 1735). It 
will be noticed that these buttons are allowed 
to project above the thicknessing pieces so 
as to receive the ends of the upper pilasters 
as shown at e (Figs. 1730 and 1735). The 
top ends of the upper pilasters have blocks 
screwed to the back of them as indicated, 
and these blocks in their turn are screwed 
to the block G, which is fixed between the 
jambs. The carved capital, with its neck 
moulding, is connected to the top of the 
pilaster by a couple of dowels ; then the top 
of the capital is secured to the head of the 
frame by screws as indicated at h (Fig. 
1730). To prevent any vacancy occurring 
between the pilasters and the edges of the 



M 



M 



F 2 ?*^ i 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 







Fig. 1736.— Joints between Stile, Top Fig. 1740.— Joints between Top Rail 
Rail, and Frieze Rail of Swing Door. and Frieze Rail of Fixed Door. 




Fig. 1737. — Tympanum Panel Pre- 
pared Ready for Carving. 




Fig. 1738.— Joints between Stile and 

Middle Rails, with Apron Prepared 

for Carving. 



Fig. 1739. — Joint between Bottom 
Rail and Stile. 





Fig. 1741.— Tympanum Panel 
Prepared for Carving. 





Fig. 1742.— Joints at Middle 
of Door. 



Fig. 1743. — Joint at Bottom 
of Door. 




PARTITIONS AND SCREENS. 



539 




Fig. 1744. 



-Rails Ploughed Ready to Receive 
Fillet of Dado Mould. 



jambs, these are held securely by means of 
buttons, as shown at K (Figs. 1730 and 1735). 
Doors. — In the construction of these, 
twin mortices and tenons have been adopted. 
At Fig. 1736 is shown the upper part of the 
stile of the swing door mortised and haunched , 
with the top rail and frieze rail tenoned, 
haunched, and ploughed to receive the 
tympanum panel that is shown at Fig. 1737, 
and is represented as rebated and tongued 
ready for carving. The plough grooves 
a in the frieze rail are for the purpose of 
receiving the tongue, which is inserted in a 
similar plough groove made in the back of 
the egg-and-tongue moulding (see a, Fig. 



1736), whereas the groove at b is for receiving 
a tongue that is fixed into the back of the 
pediment moulding (see b, Fig. 1736). At 
c the quadrant corner is shown formed on 




1745 



-Dado Mould with^ Fillet Screwed On 
at Back. 



the solid stile, and not inserted as would 
be the case in more ordinary work. The 
rail D is shown having tenons passing right 
through the stile ; this would undoubtedly 





Fig. 



1747. — Method of Framing Mouldings by 
Slot Mortice and Tenon Joint. 



Fig. 1746. — Conventional Sectional 

Detail of Framed Mouldings and 

Panel, showing Moulding Saddled 

Over Stile and Rail. 



form a better job than stubbing them in. The 
rail E, it will be seen, is of thicker material, 
so as to allow of the apron (which is to be 
carved) being worked on the solid as repre- 



540 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



sented. Both these rails are ploughed on 
their inner edges for the purpose of receiving 
rebated fillets, the tongues of which are 
held in these grooves — the object being 
to fix the dado moulds. These fillets are 
screwed and glued to the back of the dado 
moulds, as represented at a (Figs. 1731 and 
1744), and then the framing, having been 
put together, is placed in position. 

Panels. — These are raised, with a small 
scotia worked on the edge of the raised 
part, the margin of the panel being worked 
to the form of a flat ogee. The inner side 
of the panels has a flat margin, with a bolder 
moulding worked on the raised part, and the 




Fig. 1748.— Conventional Detail showing a Portion 

of Saddle Moulding and Curved Bar for 

Glazing. 

face is sunk as shown in section at c (Fig. 
1731). The bolection mouldings round the 
lower panels are solid through, so as to 
saddle over the edges of the stiles as repre- 
sented at Fig. 1746. The inner edges are 
ploughed to receive the panels as shown 
(Figs. 1746 and 1747). The angles of the 
mouldings are mitered and framed by slot 
mortices and tenons, as represented at Fig. 
1747. These mouldings would have the 
panels inserted and the joints glued be- 
fore being placed between the stiles and 
rails. The framed mouldings are firmly 
secured to the stiles and rails by means 
of dowels, as indicated at Fig. 1746, and 
the holes for these are represented in 
the stiles and rails at Figs. 1736 to 1743. 



The mouldings round the glazed part of 
the doors may be framed separately and 
inserted similarly to what has been de- 
scribed for the lower panels ; or each piece 
may be fixed by gluing and dowelling, 
and then the mitres fitted together and 




Fig. 1749. — Vertical Section through Horizontal 
Cornice, Centre of Pediment, and Fanlight. 

treated almost in the same manner as a 
case of solid moulded work, but probably 
the former would be found in the end the 
most satisfactory manner. At Figs. 1740 
to 1743 are shown the joints between the 
stiles and rails of the fixed doors ; the general 
principles of construction are the same as 
has been set forth for the swing doors, but 



PARTITIONS AND SCREENS. 



541 



of course varying in details as illustrated. 
The circular-headed marginal bars in the 
fixed doors may be cut and worked out of 
the solid, in which case they would of course 
have to be made of two pieces and butt- 
jointed, at the crown or near it, and springing, 
to the vertical bars. A neater and stronger 
job would be produced by steaming and 
bending, in which case a cylinder would have 
to be made and the method adopted as ex- 
plained in connection with Fig. 1500, page 
460. As the bars are rather stout, it would 
be found necessary to joint up three thick- 
nesses over the cylinder ; the thicknesses 
should be so arranged that the joints would 
not fall in the curved parts of the mouldings, 
but in the fillets or square parts. 

Pediment and Fanlight.— At A (Fig. 1749) 
is shown the continuation of the section d 
(Fig. 1731), which is a section through the 
horizontal cornice ; above this is shown the 
section through the centre of the main 
curved pediment and tympanum. The 
general construction is shown at Fig. 1749, 
where it will be seen that the several parts 
are screwed together as far as practicable, 
and further strengthened by cradling pieces 
being inserted and glued and blocked as 
illustrated. The top is boarded as shown 
by c, and then a curved rail prepared in 
two thicknesses is fitted on as shown in 
section at c, this forming the bottom rail 
of the fanlight. The top rail of the fanlight 
and head of frame fitting to the soffit of the 
stone arch are represented in section at e, 
where it is shown the whole is built up of 
five thicknesses. The mouldings d and f 
are worked out of the solid in con- 
venient lengths. The curved bars being 
of flat curvature, it will probably be found 
the most convenient method to prepare 
these out of the solid rather than to bend 
material for them. These are mitered and 
tongued to the short straight bars, and 
then these latter are connected to the 
radial bars by any of the usual methods. 
It is not necessary to enter fully into every 
detail of the construction, as the illustra- 
tions have been carefully prepared so as 
to make clear all the most essential 
particulars; while the general principles 
have been sufficiently expounded in other 
sections of the book. 



Hanging Swing Doors. 

In hanging T swing doors of the description 
here shown, it is essential to success that 
the doors shall be prepared accurately out 
of winding, and that the frame shall be 
fixed out of winding. If these precautions 
are carefully observed, no difficulty will be 




Fig. 1750. — Shoe, and Heel of Door Prepared to 
Receive It. 




Fig. 1751.— General View of Spring Hinge, 
with Shoe Removed. 

experienced in getting the doors to close 
and meet in line. Only general methods 
can be given for fixing the springs, of 
which there are many different kinds on 
the market, each requiring more or less 
special treatment. Printed instructions are 
generally sent out with each hinge by the 
maker, and these of course should be followed 
as closely as possible. The spring hinges 
are usually enclosed in a cast-iron box 
which has projecting flanges (see Fig. 1750), 



542 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



and to these the brass plate is secured with 
screws. The box is sunk so that the brass 
plate is flush with the surface of the floor. 



In the instance of a wood floor, two or three 
floor-boards are taken up, and trimming 
pieces are fixed between the joists, and also 
the firring pieces that may be necessary at the 
side (as indicated at Fig. 1753), to support 
the flanges or lugs of the box. The box is 
next placed in the hole, and its exact 
position found in the following manner. 
The shoe when at rest (a, Fig. 1754) must 
have its sides quite parallel to the plane of 




Fig. 1752. — Hole Cut in ^Masonry Floor to Receive 
Box of Spring Hinge. 




Fig. 1753. — Trimming and Firring 

Piece to Joists, etc., to Receive 

Hinge. 



When the floor is of stone or concrete, the 
position and size of the hole for the box are 
marked out by the joiner, and then the hole 
is cut by a mason as represented at Fig. 1752. 



the jambs, and its centre line opposite ^he 
centre of the hollow of the jamb as indicated. 
The shoes should next be turned into the 
positions shown at b and c, so as to clear 



PARTITIONS AND SCREENS. 



543 



the jambs when the door is opened at right 
angles, as indicated at b and c (Fig. 1754). 
The flanges or lugs should next be screwed 
to the trimming pieces, then the flooring 
made good ; after which the brass plate 
can be applied, the flooring being marked 
round from it and then paved, while finally 




Fig. 1756. The exact position of the pivot 
must be obtained from the centre of the 
movement of the shoe. In the top of the 
stud (on which the shoe is fixed) a punch 
mark can usually be seen, which indicates 
the axial centre. The distance of this centre 
marked from the hollow of the frame gives 
the exact distance of the 
centre of the pivot from 
the hollow of the jamb. 
Care must also be taken 
to keep the pivot in the 
centre of the thickness 
of the door and the 
hollow in the post. The 
forms of the posts vary 



Fig. 1757. 

Fig. 1755. — Elevation showing Heel of 
Door and Side of Shoe. 




Fig. 1756. — Pivot let into Head of Frame 
Fig. 1757. — Pivot Plate let into Door. 
Fig. 1754.— Plan of Spring Hinge, showing Shoe 



Fig. 1758.— Head of Door 

Recessed to Receive Pivot 

Plate. 



in Three Positions to Clear Jamb. 



the brass plate is dropped in position and 
fastened to the iron flange with screws, as 
shown at Fig. 1751. Where the floor is of 
J ;one or concrete, the iron box must be 
temporarily fixed with a few small hardwood 
wedges, of course in the exact position it will 
have to occupy, as explained above. The 
box is finally secured by filling in the spaces 
between the stone with cement. The next 
operation is to fit the shoe on the bottom 
of the door as represented at Fig. 1750. 
This will require to be very accurately done, 
especially in fitting the shaped sides of the 
shoe. The shape may be obtained by apply- 
ing the side of the shoes to the side of the 
door. The pivot and plate can next be 
let in to the head of the frame as shown at 




Fig. 1760. 

Figs. 1759 and 1760. — Mode of Action of a Pivot 
Plate. 



oU 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



according to the different makers, but 
are mostly constructed on the principle 
that the head of a fixed screw, when turned 
with a screw-driver, acts on a plate to which 
the pivot is fixed, which may be raised or 
lowered according to the direction in which 
the screw-head is turned. Two views of a 
very good form of pivot are shown at Figs. 
1759 and 1760, from which the action is 
easily inferred. A plate to receive the 
pivot has to be let into the head of the stiles 
and top rails as shown at Figs. 1757 and 1758. 



a very useful arrangement for doors through 
which there is very much traffic. 

Sliding- and Folding Partitions. 

Figs. 1761 to 1772 illustrate a useful form 
of folding and sliding partition, which has 
been largely used for dividing large rooms, 
and for separating spaces under galleries 
from the main part of halls, and in other 
similar positions. The general arrangement 
is not so up-to-date as a number of forms 
that are the subjects of current patents. 




Fig. 1761. — Horizontal Section through Partition Partly Closed. 




Fig. 1762.— Enlarged Section through B B (Fig. 1763). 



The exact position of the plate is deter- 
mined by the centre of the hole to receive 
the pivot, as previously explained. Some 
improved forms of pivots have an adjustable 
side screw, by which the doors may be 
adjusted sideways, so as to correct any slight 
fault in case of winding of the doors or 
frame. Another form of fitting provides 
an arrangement for throwing the door 
slightly forward or backward as may be 
required. To some forms of springs ad- 
justable arrangements are provided by 
which, on taking up the brass plate, the 
mechanism can be got at ; and, on turning 
adjustable screws or studs, the shoe is 
regulated in such a manner that the doors 
may always be kept in one plane. This is 



The special feature in all these inventions 
lies not in the general construction of the 
joiners' work, but in the special mechanism 
introduced to produce lightness and accuracy 
in movement, so that large openings may 
be provided with movable folding partitions, 
which can be expeditiously folded up. 
The partition here illustrated is intended 
for an opening of moderate dimensions, and 
for that service is found to work satisfactorily. 
The general arrangement is as follows : — 
At least one piece of framing is so constructed 
as to form a door as represented at Fig. 1763, 
where it will be seen that a rebated frame is 
made to receive the door, which is also 
rebated to fit the frame as shown in the 
section (a and b, Fig. 1764). This frame is 



PARTITIONS AND SCREENS. 



545 




24 



546 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY 



held together at the head and transom in 
the usual way, by mortice-and-tenon joints. 
The other pieces of the framing are of the 
ordinary door-like construction, with dimin- 
ished stiles having wood panels below and 
mouldings inserted ; the upper part of each 
frame being prepared for glass, having bars 
with movable beads which are fastened by 
screws. A wall post or stile is fixed to the 



Fig. 1769. 



Fig. 1767 




Fig. 1767. — Transverse Section through Channel- 
iron let into Floor, and End View of Caster 
and Bracket Plate. 

Fig. 1769. — Section through Channel-iron let into 

Soffit of Beam, and End View of Bracket 

Plate and Roller. 

wall at each end, and either the door end of 
the partitioning, or the opposite end, may be 
attached to the wall stile with large brass back 
flap hinges as shown. Each piece of framing 
is connected to that next to it also with 



Fig. 1768. — Longitudinal Section through Channel- 
iron, and Side Elevation of Caster and 
Bracket Plate. 

back flap hinges, but these hinges have to 
be fixed on each side alternately, as illustrated 
at Fig. 1763, where the hinges on the opposite 
side are indicated by dotted lines. Each 
piece of framing has one stile with a tongue 
formed on the solid, and the other side with 
a groove as shown at Figs. 1761 and 1762. j 
To insure the tongues entering the grooves* 



PARTITIONS AND SCREENS. 



547 



-i 



A 





-H 



Fig. 1772.— Elevation of Part of Sliding and Folding Partition. 




Fig. 1773.— Horizontal Section on Line G H (Fig. 1772). 



the former are made tapering in section, as At Fig. 1761, a plan is given showing the 
shown by the enlarged detail, Fig. 1762. partitioning partly closed. Figs. 1765 and 



548 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 




Fig. 1774.— Elevation of Door and Pieces of 
Framing when Folded Back to Wall. 




Fig. 1776. — Horizontal Section through K L 
(Fig. 1774). 



1766 are respectively elevation and plan- 
Let into the floor is an iron channel which 
runs the whole length of the partition. A 
portion of this is shown in the plan (a, Fig. 
1761 ; and b, Fig. 1766). An enlarged 
transverse section of the channel is given, 
at Fig. 1767, and at Fig. 1769 a portion 
of the longitudinal section through the- 
channel-iron is given. The views will 
make clear the forms of bracket plates to 
which the roller casters are attached. The 
bracket plates are let into the stile and 
bottom edges of each piece of framing as- 
shown. The body of the caster can revolve 
on pivot p (Fig. 1768), which passes through 
the bottom of the bracket plate. A con- 
ventional view of one of the bracket plates- 
and casters is given at Fig. 1771. At Fig. 
1769 is given a cross section through the 
channel-iron let into a flitch beam to which 
it is fixed by screws. Of course in the case 
of an iron girder the channel-iron would be 
bolted to it. An end elevation of the 
bracket iron and roller is also shown at 
Fig. 1769. Fig. 1770 is a conventional view 
of the top bracket plate and roller complete. 

Sliding and Folding Partition. 

A sliding and folding partition of modern 
construction, more particularly as regards- 
the mechanism (at the head and feet of the 
framing) to promote ease and speed of 
movement, is illustrated by Figs. 1772 to 
1777. This form of sliding partition has 
been largely adopted in schools, where, 
during the time of ordinary instruction, 
it divides a large room or hall into class- 
rooms, and can be quickly folded up when 
the larger space is required for mass assem- 
blage. The principal points to note in this 
example are as follows : — Where a doorway 
is provided as shown at a (Fig. 1772), the 
door, with a piece of glazed framing imme- 
diately above it, is often hung to a wall 
stile as shown at b (Figs. 1772 and 1773). 
The usual arrangement admits of the door 
and the glazed frame above it folding back 
against a wall as shown in elevation and sec- 
tion at Figs. 1774 and 1775, where it will be 
noticed that the door and framing above 
project about half their width beyond the 
other pieces of framing. The other parts 
of the partition are formed of pieces of 



PARTITIONS AND SCREENS. 



549 



-doorlike framework, which are centrally 
Imng at the top to a carriage and wheel 
arrangement, the wheels or pulleys having 
hollow rims, and running on parallel rails, 
"which are supported by malleable-iron 
boxlike hangers, fixed to the flange of a 
Tolled-iron girder by means of bolts. These 
liangers are fixed at intervals which vary 
according to the weight of the partitioning 
to be supported. The bolt which passes 
through the carriage has, at the lower end, 
a flange which is let in and bolted to the 
top rail of the framing as shown in section 
at Fig. 1776. The upper end of the bolt 
passes through the carriage, and has a 
collar on it so as completely to support the 
piece of framing, and at the same time allow 
the latter to be turned round as desired. 
Then immediately above this collar is a 
cog pinion, which works in a toothed rack, 
as shown in section at Fig. 1776. The 
bottom of the framing is also supplied 
-with a plate, which is let into the bottom 
Tail (having a projecting stud on which a 
pinion can revolve), and is in contact with 
a rack ; while a boxlike channel similar to 
that 'represented at Fig. 1777 is let into 
the floor as shown. The object of the rack 
and pinion is to produce an equal movement 
at the top and bottom, without binding, 
"which would sometimes occur if the pieces 
of framing get out of the vertical. Where 
a door is provided, as here illustrated, the 
pieces of framing are connected by groove- 
•and-tongue joints. One advantage of this 
centre-hung system is that, by connecting 
one piece of framing to the adjacent pieces 
by rebated joints, it can be used as a door 
as indicated at c (Fig. 1773), thus allowing 
two spaces a little less than half the width 
of a piece of the framing, which is sufficient 
for persons to pass through. When this 
method is adopted, it is usual to provide 
the two adjacent pieces with a flush bolt, 
as indicated by the dotted lines at d and e 
<{Fig. 1772). The piece of swing framing 
is provided with a brass mortice latch, with 
Hush drop handles. There are many other 
systems of constructing sliding and folding 
partitions, many of them protected by letters 
patent, but the examples that have been 
given suffice to explain the general principles 
involved. 




Fig. 



1776.— Enlarged Transverse Section showing 
Mechanism for Hanging Framing. 




Fig. 1777. — Transverse Section through Box 

Channel, showing Mechanism at Bottom 

of Framing. 



BEVELS: FINDING AND SETTING OUT. 



Introduction. — Writers on this subject 
usually assume a considerable amount of 
geometrical knowledge on the part of the 
reader, and give " short-cut " methods 
without explaining the geometrical principles 
that are involved. The principles and 
methods employed in each particular case 
may possibly have been adopted after much 
geometrical study and experimenting on 
the part of the writer, who, however, is 
apt to forget that the lack of such prelimi- 
nary grounding may place his readers at 
a serious disadvantage. A student, follow- 
ing the methods thus superficially described, 
may obtain correct results for similar cases, 
with little or no geometrical reasoning on his 
part. Hence, when he is called upon to 
deal with more complicated cases, he finds 
himself in difficulties, as he is unable to 
adapt and apply principles that he has never 
really mastered ; because they have only 
been described to him, not explained or 
expounded. Everyone who desires to be- 
come proficient in setting out for bevels, 
so as to be able to deal promptly, decisively, 
and effectively with the various cases that 
arise in practice, must first possess a clear 
idea of the principles involved, and of their 
application to varying circumstances. In 
other words, it is necessary for him to 
study a few of the fundamental principles 
of solid and descriptive geometry. This 
preparation is best obtained in a class 
under a competent teacher ; but where class- 
work is out of the question, the necessary 
knowledge may be obtained from a good 
text-book on geometry. Such study does 
not involve any very great expenditure of 
time ; and the principles, once mastered, 
are not easily forgotten. It is beyond the 
scope of the present work to deal fully with 
the subject of solid and descriptive geometry ; 
but several geometrical problems, forming 



the foundation of some of the more general* 
methods of setting out bevels, will be here 
explained and illustrated. The direct appli- 
cation of geometrical principles to typical) 



Fig. 1778.— Angle of 
Line, with Horizontal 
Trace and Inclina- 
tion of the Plane. 




Fig. 1779.— Pictorial View of Geometrical Work- 
ing of Fig. 1778. 

examples of joinery will afford a useful 
combination of theory and practice. Bevels, 
and some of the geometrical principles in- 
volved in setting out as applied to roofing, 
are illustrated and explained in the section 
on Roofs, etc., beginning at p. 167, and 
it will be found an advantage to study, in 
connection with the present section, the- 
descriptions and illustrations there given.. 



550 



BEVELS: FINDING AND SETTING OUT. 



551 



Bevels for circle-on-circle work, etc., have 
also been shown, and the methods of setting 
them out geometrically explained, in con- 
nection with the special subject to which 
they belong. 

Geometrical Problems Practically Applied. 
— Fig. 1778 shows a very useful geometrical 
problem — namely, " Given an inclined plane 
and the plan of a line in that plane, find the 
angle the line makes with the horizontal 
trace." Briefly, the working is : At right 
angles to the h.t. (horizontal trace), draw 




Fig. 1781 



Fig. 1780. 



Fig. 1780. — Plan of One Corner of Linings 
or Trough. 

Fig. 1781.— Method of Obtaining Bevels for Case 
shown at Fig. 1780. 

x y intersecting it in o. Draw the v.t. 
(vertical trace) at the given angle as shown 
by the bevel c. Let a b be the plan of the 
line, then a' b' will be its elevation. With 
o as centre and b' as radius, draw the arc b"' '. 
Projecting from this, parallel to h.t., and 
projecting out from b parallel to xy, 
point b" is obtained. Joining this to a 
gives the angle the line makes with h.t. as 
shown by the bevel d. Evidently the 
oblique plane with the line has been 
rotated into the horizontal plane. The 
complete working is shown pictorially at 
Fig. 1779. 

Bevels for Trough or Linings. — Now 
apply the foregoing problem to obtaining 



the bevels for the face sides of splay linings 
and troughs, etc. A corner of such an 
example is shown in plan at Fig. 1780. 
Consider the inner surfaces as geometrical 
inclined planes, and draw a portion of these 
surfaces in plan a b c d e and / (Fig. 1781). 
Produce / e to e'. Consider it the inner 
surface of the inclined plane abef. Through 
e' draw x y at right angles to / e', and set 
up the angle of the inclined plane and 



Fig. 1782.— Corner of 
Linings or Trough 
with Sides Un- 
equally Inclined. 




Fig. 1783. — Geometrical Construction for 
Obtaining Bevels for Fig. 1782. 

height of the trough as shown by V c'. 
Then the bevel shown at G will be that re- 
quired for the edge of the stuff that is to 
fit the edge of the frame or bottom of the 
trough. Now consider b e and b' e' as the 
plan and elevation of the given line on the 
inclined plane. Using e' as centre, b' as 
radius, point b'" is obtained as previously 
explained. Joining this to e gives us the 
bevel for application to the side of the stuff 
for the oblique cut of the end as shown by 
the bevel h. At Fig. 1782 is shown in plan 
an object in which the sides ire unequally 
inclined ; and at Fig. 1783 is shown the 
geometrical working. Two elevations are 



552 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



given, namely, one at x y and the second 
at a?' y\ each x y being at right angles to 
a horizontal trace. The bevel at a is for 
application to the edge of the piece of stuff 
shown in plan at b, the bevel at c being for 
that of the piece of stuff at d, and the bevel 
e f for application to the surface of the 
stuff. 

Bevels for Hexagonal Hopper. — Fig. 1784 
shows the part plan of a hexagonal hopper 



Fig. 1784 




Fig. 1785 



Fig. 1784.— Plan of Part of Hexagonal Object 
with Inclined Sides and Mitered Angles. 

Fig. 1785. — Geometrical Construction to Obtain 
Bevels for Fig. 1784. 

or similar article, the sides of which are 
inclined and mitered together as shown, 
the edges being in parallel planes. The 
method of obtaining the bevels about to 
be explained is also applicable to special 
mitered linings, inclined mitered fascia 
boards, and similar work. Set out the 
plan of two adjacent surfaces as shown at 
Fig. 1785 ; then, proceeding as before, 
take the representation of the bottom 
arris of one shown by e /. Produce it to 
any point e', and make it the horizontal 
trace of an inclined plane. Draw x y, and, 



proceeding as previously described, obtain 
the bevel h. If the sides are equally in- 
clined as shown, the bevel at k will be the 
same as that at H. The bevel for the edge 
of the stuff is indicated by G. If the edges 
of the stuff are bevelled so as to be in parallel 
planes, the bevel to be applied to the edge 
of the stuff for mitering will be as that 
shown at l (Fig. 1784). 

Bevels for Edges Square to Inclined Sur- 
faces. — Taking examples similar to those 
already dealt with, but assuming that it 
is necessary to obtain the bevel for the 




Fig. 1787. 
k Fig. 1786. 

Fig. 1786.— Mitered Angles, and Top Edges 

Square. 

Fig. 1787.— Obtaining Bevel for Square Edge of 

Fig. 1786. 

mitre, which has to be applied to an edge 
that is at right angles to the surface, the 
proceedings will be as explained below. 
Figs. 1786 and 1787 show the part plan 
and sectional elevation of one corner of 
an object mitered at the angles as shown. 
Through a' draw x y, produce e' ti (Fig. 
1786), which gives e' h' (Fig. 1787), the 
vertical trace. At right angles to x y, of 
course parallel to ac (Fig. 1786), [draw 
e h parallel to a e h (Fig. 1786), project 
up to the vertical trace, giving point e'. 
With h' as centre, and e' as radius, draw the 
arc e r e" '. Projecting down and horizontally 
from e gives point e'". Joining this to h 
gives the bevel required for the application 



BEVELS: FINDING AND SETTING OUT. 



553 



to the edge for mitering the stuff. It is 
now obvious that the edge of the stuff forms 
an inclined plane, and the mitre e h the 
plan and elevation of a line in that plane. 
By rotating the inclined plane and line into 
the horizontal plane as previously explained, 




reference to Fig. 1791, which shows pictori- 
ally the principle of working, the construction 
will be plainly evident. 

Bevels for Mitered Angles of Triangular 
Hopper. — At Fig. 1792 are shown the plan and 
elevation of a triangular hopper. Let it be 
required to find the angle between the two 
surfaces, and the bevel for mitering the 




1789. 



Fig. 1788. — Sides meeting at an Obtuse Angle and having Square Edges. 
Figs. 1789 and 1790. — Alternative Methods for Obtaining Bevel for Mitre on Square Edge. 

the bevel is ascertained. Fig. 1788 shows 
the part plan and part sectional elevation 
of a corner of an object of which the sides 
form an obtuse angle and are mitered 
together. The line of the bottom arris a c 
being produced is considered as the horizontal 
trace of a plane. Then, at any convenient 
position, draw a line I h' parallel to c a', and 
work the problem as shown at Fig. 1789 ; 
the working being identical with that ex- 
plained in connection with Figs. 1786 and 
1787. Sometimes it is very convenient 
to imagine the inclined plane as being 
brought into a horizontal position by rotat- 
ing it about a level line above the horizontal 
plane. It should be carefully noted that 
this line should be taken parallel to the line 
originally fixed on as the horizontal trace. 
The method of working is shown at Fig. 1790, 
where it will be seen that e' In! is the inclina- 
tion of the stuff (and the vertical trace), 
In h' the horizontal trace, g k the level line 
of rotation. Then imagine the line and 
plane to move into the position shown by 
elevation e' h". Projecting down from h" 
and horizontally from h gives point h"' 
and the bevel required as shown at p. By 

24* 




Fig. 1791. — Pictorial View of Geometrical 
Working shown at Fig. 1790. 

edges of the stuff. Draw a b (Fig. 1793) 
parallel to the intersection a b (Fig. 1792). 
Then at Fig. 1793 complete the outline plan 
of the corner by drawing a d, a e. Draw x y 
parallel to a b. Project up from a, and 
mark off a' from x y equal to d' from x y 
(Fig. 1792). Then draw the outline of the 
top edge as shown by a' c' (Fig. 1793). 
From any convenient point in a' b r set out 
a line at right angles meeting a' o' in c'. 
Now imagine this line c! f to represent a 



554 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



plane at right angles to a' b' ; projecting 
down from c', it will be clear that this plane 
will cut the top arrises of the surfaces as 
shown in plan at d and e, and the portion of 



Now draw b' b parallel to the lines in the 
plan, as shown, and c b parallel to a' b' ; 
then join b to a. It should be noted that 
this work is identical with that explained 



J^h 




Fig. 1792. — Plan and Elevation 

of Triangular Hopper. 

Fig. 1793.— Obtaining Angle 

between Two Surfaces and 

Bevel for Mitered Edges. 



Fig. 1793. 

the plane fitting between the two surfaces 
from d and e will be triangular in shape. 
An edge view of this triangular portion 
of plane is represented by c' /. Now 
imagine this triangular plane rotated about 
the line d e until it is in a horizontal position. 
The apex shown at / in elevation would 
move to the point g', and thus projecting 
down from g' to the intersection line a b 
obtains point g ; then joining g to d and to 
e gives the angle between the surfaces as 
shown by the bevel. Half the angle as 
indicated by the bevel dotted at a will give 
the bevel for application to the mitered 
edge. The geometrical problem here intro- 
duced is thus stated : " Given two inclined 
planes and their intersection, determine the 
angle between them." This is known as 
the dihedral angle. 

Setting Out Mitre Lines on 
Mouldings. 

Assume that two pieces of cornice moulding 
are to be joined at right angles ; that is, an 
angle of 90°. Let the section of the mould- 
ing be as shown in Fig. 1794. Draw the plan 
of the mouldings and mitre as at Fig. 1795. 
Then set a bevel to the mitre line c d. This 
will be the bevel to apply to the top edge, as 
indicated by the line c d (Fig. 1796). For 
the bevel for the sloping back, through the 
angle at a' (Fig. 1794) draw a' b'. With a' 
as centre and c' as radius, draw the arc c' b'. 




Fig. 1792 



Fig. 1794 




1795. 



Figs. 1794 and 1795. — Section and Plan of 

Portion of Mitered Cornice, and Geometrical 

Construction for Mitre. 



BEVELS: FINDING AND SETTING OUT. 



555 




angle. If there are several mitres to be 
made, and 'all meet at the same angle, a 
simpler plan is to construct a mitre box 
which will hold the moulding to the exact 
angle, as shown at Fig. 1797, and the mitres 
can be cut in the usual manner. 

Setting Out Mitre Lines. 

When setting out a mitre block for mould- 
ings meeting at right angles as shown at a 
(Fig. 1798), it is only necessary to draw a 
square on the top block as shown at A b c d 
(Fig. 1799), and then the diagonal a c is the 



Fig. 1796.— Mitered Lines Drawn on Moulding. 




Fig. 1797.— Moulding in Mitre Box Ready for 
Cutting. 

in connection with Fig. 1781. Set the 
bevel as indicated, and apply it to the 
sloping back of the moulding and mark 
it. This will give a line as indicated by 




Fig. 1799. 



-Setting Out for the Cuts on a 
Square Mitre Block. 



a c (Fig. 1796). As a' e' is a vertical sur- 
face, the line a e indicated at Fig. 1796 
can be drawn square. This principle can 
be applied for mouldings meeting at any 



Fig. 1798. — Setting Out the Angles for Obtuse 
and Acute Angles of Panel Mouldings. 



556 



CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 



mitre line. When the mouldings meet at 
an obtuse or acute angle, as b or c (Fig. 1798), 
the better plan is to set out the mitre on a 
piece of board, as at Fig. 1800. Smooth 
up a board and shoot the edge, then gauge 
a line about J in. (say) away from the edge 
and set out the required angle, as indicated 
at fhg ; now bisect this angle, and then 
H k is the mitre line. A bevel should now be 
set to the mitre line (see Fig. 1800), and then 
applied to the mitre block, as illustrated at 
Fig. 1801. 




Fig. 1800.— Setting Out Angles for Mitres. 




Fig. 1801.— Setting Out Block for Obtuse Mitres. 

Mitre of Moulding on Oblique Corner. 

To draw the elevation and plan of a 
moulding mitre round an oblique angle of a 
wall, and, inclined on both walls (Fig. 1802), 
draw a' e, the elevation of the corner of the 
wall. From a' draw a' d' at the slant of the 
moulding on one wall. Draw d' f at right 
angles to d' a' '. On d' f draw the section of 
the moulding. Draw a d the plan of the 
face of wall, and b f parallel to it at a distance 
equal to the thickness of the moulding. 
From a draw a line at an angle equal to the 



angle of the wall. Draw a line parallel to it, 
corresponding to b /, intersecting it at b. 
Join a 6, which is the plan of the mitre line. 
Fig. 1802 shows the elevation and plan. The 
elevation of the point b' is, of course, found 
by projecting up from b to the line b f c', 
drawn through the section of the moulding 
parallel to a' d' . From a' draw a' c' at right 
angles to V c' ; a' b' c' is the elevation of the 
right-angled triangle, b c, being parallel 
to the vertical plane, is seen in true length 
in the elevation, a c is equal to the width 
of the upper surface of the moulding, and 
is seen in the section ; with these lines the 



Fig. 1802. 




Fig. 1803 



Fig. 1802. — Elevation and Plan of Moulding to 

an Oblique Angle. 

Fig. 1803. — Elevation of Return Mould. 

triangle can be drawn. The other bevel 
for the cut will obviously be the angle 
d' a' e. To obtain the bevels for the 
return piece, draw the elevation shown in 
Fig. 1803, where a' h is the corner of the wall, 
a' r the slope of the moulding, a' b' will be 
equal to a' V (Fig. 1802), and can be drawn 
by projecting lines across. Draw b r I parallel 
to a' r. Draw the section of the moulding 
r ml, making m I equal to the thickness of 
the front moulding, and r m at right angles 
to a' r. From a' draw a' c at right angles 
to b I. Produce c a' to a, make c a equal to 
r I, join a b'. a b' c is the angle required. 



INDEX. 



{Illustrated subjects are denoted by asterisks.} 



Abrading Tools, *22-24 
Adze Heads, *20 
Adze-eye Hammer, *18 
Alburnum or Sapwood, 26 
American Brace, *21 

Elm, 47 

■ Oak, 48 

Red Pine, 47 

White Spruce, 47 

Yellow Pine, 47 

Anderson's Expanding Bits, *21, 

22 
Angle Halved Joints, *54 

Joints, Obtuse, *61 

, Right, *61 

or Returned Bead Moulding, 

*468 
Angle-posts in Half Timber Work, 

*20l 
Annual Rings in Timber, 42 
Apron, Carved, for Door, *397 
Apse End of Collar Beam Roof 

Truss, *143 
Arcade, Shoring, *243 
Arch, Camber or Straight, *252, 

253 
, Cambered, Setting Out Curve 

for *252 

Centering, *250-288 

Barrel Vaulting, *270-272 

, Cambered, *252 

, Circle-on-Circle, *257, 262 

, Elliptical, *253-255, *257 

for Elliptical Niche, 

*281-284 
— — Stone Arch, 

*273 

, Gothic, *266 

, Gothic-on-circle, *264, 265 

, Groin Vaulting, *284- 

286 
, Hemispherical Dome, 

*286-288 
: Obtaining Radius of 

Segment of Circle, *251 
■ for Opening with Re- 
veals, *262-264 

, Segmental, *250, *257 

: Segmental Bridge, *2V2, 

273 
for Segmental Stone 

Arch, *277-279 

, Semicircular, *255, 256 

for Skew Arch Bridge, 

*280. 281 
Stone Arch and 

Brick Back Arch, *266 

, Straight, *253 

Suggested by Tredgold, 

*277 
■ for Tunnel, *279, 280 

Curves, Fornmla for, 250 



Arch, Elliptical, Setting Out 

Curves for, *253, 255 

,Oval, *253 

, Railway, Shoring to, *247-249 

, Segmental, Centering for, 

*257, 277-279 

, .Setting Out, *250 

, Semicircular, Centerings for, 

:: 255, 256 

■ Soffit, Development of, *259 

— , Stone, Centering for, *266 

, Straight, *253 

, Trimmer Supporting, *72 

Arched Ceiling, Mansard Roof 

Over Room with, *142, 143 
Architrave Moulding, Double 

Pace, *468 
Architraves, Door, *335, := 386-388 
Arkansas Oilstones, 23, 24 
Asbestos Slabs under Wooden 

Ploor, *91, 92 
Astragal Moulding and Fillets, 

*468 
Auger, *22 

Bits, Forstner, *22 

Awl, Marking, *3 
Axes, *19 



Beads, Guard, for Sash Frame, 
*467 



from 



Sash 



Baize-covered Doors, *377-379 
Balk, Denned, 35 

■ Timber, 29 

.Defects in, *40, 41 

, Lining, *38 

Balks, Norwegian, 45 
Baltic Flooring, Laying, 89 

Oak, 48 

• White Deal, 43, 44 

Yellow Deal, 43 

Barefaced Tenons, *319 
Bargeboards, *210, *212-214 
Barrel Vaulting, Centering for, 

*270-272 
Basement Floors, *68, 69 

, Wood-block, *93-97 

Battened Square-framed Door, 

*333, 335 
Battens, 43 

.Defined, 35 

Bay Dormer Window, *186 

Baywood, 50, 51 

Bead Architrave Moulding, *468 

Mouldings, *468 

■ Planes, *14 

Beaded Stops for Doors, *318 



Removing, 
Frames, 423 

for Solid Mullion Sash 

Frames, *436 

Beams, Cutting Stiffest, from 

Round Log, *38 
, Strongest, from Round 

Log, *37 

, Floors with Trussed, *80, 81 

, Jointing, to Posts and 

Struts, *61 

, Joints for, * 57-61 

, Strength of, *39, 40 

Trussed with Tension Rod, 

*81 

Belfast Roof Truss, *154, 158 
Belidor's System of Setting Out 

Mansard Roof, *134 
Bench Holdfast, *9 
, " Knock-up," *8 

Screws, *7, 8 

■ Stops, *8, 9 

Benches, *5-9 

Bethell's Process of Preserving 
Timber, 34 

Bevelled Halving Joints, *55 

Bevel, *3 

.Sliding, *3 

Bevels for Edges Square to In- 
clined Surfaces, *552, 553 

, Finding and Setting Out, 

*550-556 

: Geometrical Problems Prac- 
tically Applied, *551 

for Hexagonal Hopper, *552 

Hips, *170, 171, *173, 175 

Jack Rafters, *168, 169 

— - — Mitered Angles of Tri- 
angular Hopper, *552 

: Mitre Lines, Setting Out, 

*554-556 
: Mouldings, Mitre Lines on, 

*554, *555 

Purlins, *171, 173 

Rafters, *166-175 

for Trough or Linings, *551, 

552 

Binder, Floor, Determining Size 
of, 84, 85 

Chase-mortised for Ceiling 

Joists, *74 

for Double Floors, Iron, *75, 

77 

, Steel, *77, 78 

, Wooden, *74, 75 

, Wrought, Floor with, *74 

Bird's-mouthed Joints, *55, 56 
, Shouldered Joint, Tenoned 

and, *61 
Bitch for Builder's Gantry, *216 
Bits, Anderson's, *21, 22 

, Centre, *1, 22 

, Expanding, *21 



558 



INDEX. 



Bits, Expanding Centre, *21 

, Forstner Auger, *22 

, Nose, 21 

, Pin, 21 

, Spoon. 21 

, Twist-nose, *21 

Bitumen for Laying Wood block 

Floor, 94 
Blockings, Glued, *63 
Boarded Roof, Circular, *159 
Boarding for Framed and Braced 

Door, *319 
Boards, Cutting, from Square 

Log, *481 

, Floor (See Floor Boards) 

, Shooting, *4 

Bolection Moulding, *363, *468 

, Working, :: 472 

Boring Jambs for Draw-pinning, 

*314 

Tools, *20-22 

Boucbere's Process of Preserving 

Timber, 34 
Bow Saw, *17 

Bowstring Roof Truss, *154, 158 
Box Pin Joint, *62, 64 
Boxing Shutters to Doorway, 

Panelled Linings to, *516-519 
, French Casements with, 

*449-458 
Brace and Bits, *21, 22 

Screwdrivers, 20 

Brace and Post Joint, *61 
Braced and Framed Door and 

Frame, *318-323 

Doors, Hanging, 

320 

Sliding Door, *326 

Trussed Partitions, : 98- 

110 

Bradawls, *20 

Brads, 24 

.Floor, *90 

Brands, Timber, 52 

Brick-nogged Partitions, *98 

Bridge, Skew Arch, Centering for, 
*280, 281 

Bridging Joist, Determining Size 
of, 83, 84 

Bridle Joints, *55 

Builder's Staging, *219, 220 

Bull's-eye Frame, Circular, *461 

Burnett's Timber Preserving Pro- 
cesses, 34, 35, 42 

Butt End, Raking Scarf with, *57 

Joint, Edge, *62 

, Fished, *59 

with Flush Beads, *63 

— , Mitered, *56 

— , Plain. *62 

-, Rebated, *62 

, Tongued, *62 

and Tenoned Joint, Mitered, 

*61 



Windows, Old-style, 



in Solid 



Case- 



Cabinet Screwdrivers, 20 

Callipers, *3, 4 

Cambered Arch, Setting Out 

Curve for, =252 
Cambering Tie-beam, 133 
Canada Oilstones, 24 
Carved Apron for Door, *397 
Casement Frame, Solid, Joiners' 

Rods for, *296, 297 
Windows, French, to Open 

Inwards, *443-446 
, Small, *430, 431 



Arch, 



*284-286 
Dome, 



Casement 

*428-430 
Casements, : 404 

and Fanlight 

Frame, -446-449 

, French (See French 

ments) 
Cavetto Quirked Ogee Moulding, 

*468 
Ceiling, Arched, Mansard Roof 

for, *142, 143 

Joists, Binder Chased-mor- 

tised for, *74 

Centering for Barrel Vaulting, 

*270-272 
Circle-on-circle Arches, 

: 257-262 
with Parallel 

Jambs and Reveals, *257-259 
Radial 

Jambs, *259-262 
Elliptical Arches, *257, 

*273, 277 

■ Window, *257 

Gothic Arch to Arcade 

of Church, *266-268 

Gothic-on-circle 

*264 

Groin Vaulting, 

Hemispherical 

*286-288 
Opening with Reveals, 

:; 262-264 

Segmental Arches, *257 

Bridge, *272-273 

Semicircular Arches, 

*255-257 
- Stone Arch and Brick 

Back Arch, *266 
" Chalk Line," 3 
Charnley Forest Oilstones, 23 
Chase Mortice Joints, *55, 56 
Chequer Wood-block Floor, *96 
Chestnut, 48, 49 

, Spanish, 48 

Chisels, Firmer, *11 

, Mortice, *11 

Chimneys, Ridges and Purlins 

Trimmed to, *165, *166 
Church Arcade, Shoring, *243-247 

Roof. ::; 144, *147, 148 

Circle, Obtaining Radius of Seg- 
ment of, *251 

Circle-on-circle Arch, Centres for, 

*257-262 
with Parallel Jambs and 

Reveals, Centre for, *257-259 
Radial Jambs, 

Centre for, *259-262 
Doors (see Doors) 

Sash Frames, *463-467 

Circular Bull's-eye Sash Frame, 

*461 
■ Doors (see Doors) 

Roof Truss, *159 

Work, Cramps for, *11 

Cogging Joints, *55 
Collar Beam, 117 

Roof, ::: 143, 144 

, Joints for, *143, 146 

Braces, Span Roof with, 

'116 

Roof, Span (see Span) 

Collars for Supporting Arches 

during Shoring, *246 
Compass Planes, 14 
Compasses, *3 
Composite Doors, *375-377 
, Panels for, *377 

Truss for Flat Roof, *153, 154 

Trusses, *149-154 

Compression and Cross Strain, 

Joints for, *57, 58 
Cone, Elliptical, Frustum of, 

*497 
Converting Oak, 35 

Pitchpine, *35 

Timber, *35, 36 



Cords, Attaching, to Sash Frame. 

::: 423, 424 

■ for Sash Frame, *423, 424 

, Removing, from Sash Frame, 

;:: 423, 424 
Cornice, Enriched, and Wall 

Panelling, *508-516 

for Vestibule Framing, *536 

Mouldings, Working, *473, 

Corridor Screen and Door. *525- 

528 
Cottage. Half-timbered, *202-204 
Couple-close Roof, *117, 118 
Cramping Floor Boards, *89, 90 

Sash Frame, *421, 422 

Cramps, "9-11 

for Circular Work, *11 

,G, *9 

, Iron G, *9 

for Sash Frames, *421 

i Wedge, *9 

for Wedging Up Door, 

Crenellated Square, 3 
Creosoting Timber, 42 
Cross-halved Joints, :; 54 
Cross-strain, Joints for, *57 
Cup Wood Screws, *25 
Cupboard Front, Rods for, 

306 

.Portable, Rods for, *310, 311 

Cup-shakes in Timber, *40 
Curves, Arch, Formula for, 250 

for Cambered Arches, Setting 

Out, *252 

Elliptical Arches, Set- 
ting Out, * 253-255 

Large Arches of Mode- 
rate Rise, Setting Out, *251, 
252 

, Setting Out, with Radius 

Rod, *251 

Cutting Gauges, *3 

for Mouldings, *471 

Cyma Recta Moulding, *468 



*331 



'303- 



Dado, Hardwood, Fixing, *491-493 

■ Sham Framing, *486-490 

Dantzic Timber Quality Marks, 

*44 
Deals, 35, 43 

Baltic White, 43, 44 

Yellow or Red, 43 

Norwegian, 45 

Red or Yellow, 44 

Russian White, 46 

Swedish, 45 

— — , Quality Marks on *44, 
45 
Derrick for Raising Roof Prin- 
cipal, 145 

Tower Gantry, *221, 222 

Diminishing Mouldings, *475, 476 
Divided Tenon Joints, *55 
Dividers, *3, 4 

Doatiness in Timber, 41 
Dock Gates, Timber for, 51 
Dog for Builders' Gantry, *216 

, Joiners', *9, 10 

Dome, Centering for Hemisphe- 
rical, *286-288 
Donkey's-ear Shooting Block, "4 
Door Architraves, *335, *386, 388 

in Corridor Screen, *525 

, Baize-covered, *377-379 

. Battened Square - framed, 

*333, 335 






INDEX. 



559 



Door, Bead Flush Panel to, *351, 

356 

, Beaded Stops for, *318 

, Boarding for Framed and 

Braced, -319 
, Bolection Moulded Panels 

for, *357, 358 
Casings, Hardwood, Fixing, 

*504-506 

, Oircle-on-eircle, *397-403 

Swing, with Fanlight, 

*401-403 

, Circular, *379-381 

, .Panels of, *381 

with Circular Frame, Archi- 
traves for, *386, 388 
, Double - mar- 

gin, *381-390 
, Frame for, 

*384-386 
, Frame d 

Grounds for, : 386 
, Rod for, *381- 

384 
, Splayed Lin- 
ings for, 386 
, Circular, on Plan Entrance, 

*390-397 
, , Face and Soffit 

Moulds for, *392, 393 

, , Mouldings for, 

*393 395 

.Cleaning off, 331, 332 

, Composite, *375-377 

, , Panels for, *377 

, Double-margin, *373-375 

with Fanlight, *346-349 

, Four-panelled, *333, 335 

, .Hanging, *337-340 

, Moulded, *335, *342-346 

, -, Jamb Linings of, 

*335, 342 
, Outer, *346-349 

Frame, Circle-on-circle, *398, 

399 

, , Ascertaining Plan 

Curves of, *398 

Frame, Swing, *535 

Framed, *335 

and Braced, *318-323 

, Hanging, 320 

, Making, *319 

, Jamb Linings of, *342- 

344 
-, Frameless Stable, *324-325 

- Frames, *312 

, Fixing, 314 

in Half-timber Work, 

*202 

- in Hall Screen, *523 

, Joinery of, 326-332 

, Ledged, *312 

, Rebating, *318, 319 

- and Framing, Gluing and 
Wedging-up, *331 

Front-entrance, *365-373 

, and Frame, *365-373 

, Mortising and Tenoning 

Frame of, 369 

, Moulding Frame of, *369 

.Panels of, *372, 373 

, Rebating Frame of; 369 

.Setting Out, : 368, 369 

Haunching Rail of, : 372 
Hinges, Fixing, -339, 340 
Jamb Linings, *335, 336, *342, 
'346 

Joiners' Rods for, ;:: 289-293 
Joints for Boarding for, *319 
Large Framed and Braced 
Sliding. :; 326 
Ledged, :; 312-318 

and Braced, *316-318 

, *Hanging, 316 

, Joints for, *316 

, Preparing, *315, 316 

Main Entrance, *531 
Measuring for, 370 



Door, Mitering Bead of, *317 

Mouldings, : 362 

, Planting, 332, 333 

, Mortice and Tenon Joints 

for, * 328-330, 372 
.Movable Shutter, *351-357 

- Muntins, Setting Out, -352 
, Shoulder Lines on, *327, 

328 

, Oak Sill for, 317 

.Outer, *346-349 

, , with Movable Shutter, 

*351-357 
, — — , Splayed Linings to, *346 

Panels, Bolection Moulded, 

-357, 358 

, Composite, *377 

, Inserting Strip in Split, 

-341, 342 

, Mulleting, *331 

-, Repairing, *340-342 

■ , Replacing, *342 

, Split, Repairing, *340, 

341 

Rails, Scribing, *372 

, Setting Out, *328, *354 

, Shoulders on Stiles and Rails 

of, *352-355 

Shutter, Making, *356, 357 

, Six-panelled, *346 

, , Jamb Linings for, *346 

, Sliding Framed and Braced, 

*326 

■ with Solid Frame, in Parti- 
tion Wall, *333, 335 

, Splayed Linings to, *346 

.Stable, ::: 324, 325 

Stiles, Setting Out, *327, *352 

Stops, *318 

, Swing and Vestibule Fram- 
ing, *531 

, Swinging, Hanging, *541-544 

, , Pivot for, *544 

, , Spring Hinge for, *541 

, Tenon Joints for, *318. 319 

.Timber for, 51 

, Two-panelled, *357-363 

, , Frame for, -359 

, , Panel of, *363 

, .Setting Out, *361 

, , Splayed Linings for, 

*360, 361 
, .Wedging Up, *331 

for Vestibule Framing, *539 

Doors, Varieties of Common, *312 
Doorway Linings, Framed and 

Panelled, *516-519 
Doorways, Panelled Linings for, 

*363-365 

, Skeleton Jambs for, 364 

, Two, Braced and Trussed 

Partitions for, *98 
Dormer, Gabled, *182-184 

in Half Mansard with Flat 

Roof, *197, 198 

Mansard Roof Truss, 

*134, 136 

Windows, -180-198 

, Bay, *186 

.Framework of, -181 

, Joints for, *183 

in Mansard Roof, *184, 

186 

, North Country Style of, 

*187-196 

, Stone Gabled, *196, 197 

Double Floors, *74-78 {see also 
Floors, Double) 

Double-hung Sash Frame, *427 

Double-margin Doors, -373-375, 
*381-390 

, Circular-framed, "381- 

390 

Dovetail Halving Joints, Shoul- 
dered, *55 

Joints, -61, -62 

■ Lap Joints, *55 

Ledged Joint, :: 62, 64 



Dovetail Notching, *55, * 

■ Saw, 17 

Scarf Joint, *58 

■ Secret Joint, *62, 64 



113 



*62 



65 



Slip-feather Joint, 

Splayed Joint, *58 

Tenon Joints, -67 

Do welled Angle Joint, 
Floor Joint, -90 

Joint, *62 

Post and Sill, Joint for, *55 

Draw-boring Mortice and Tenon, 

*318 
Dragon Tie at Foot of Hip Rafter, 

*125, 128 
Draw Knife, *13 
Draw-boring, *314 
Draw-pinning, Boring Jambs for, 

*314 
Dry Rot in Timber, 41 
Drying Timber, Erith's Method 

of, *32, 33 
, " Sturtevant " Method 

of, *32 
Duffy's Patent Wood-block Floor, 

*96 
Dutch Wainscot, 48 



Earth Waggons, Timber for, 51 
Edge Joints, *61, 62 

for Floors, *90, 91 

Edge Moulds, Setting Out, *499 
Ellipse, Definition of, 253 

-, Setting Out, *253, 254 

Elliptical Arches, Centerings for, 

*257 
, Setting Out Curves for, 

*253, 255 

Cone, Frustum of, *497 

■ Conical Soffit Lining, *497 

Niche. Arch Centering for, 

:: 281-284 

Stone Arch, Centering for, 

*273 277 

Window, Centering for, *257 

Elliptical-headed Linings for Sash 

Frame, *459 
Opening, Soffit Lining for, 

*496-502 
■ Sash Frame, *458-461 

Window, *446-449 

Elm, 47 

, American, 47 

Emery Oilstones, 24 
Endogenous Timber, 28 
English Oak, 48 
Erith's Automatic Timber Drier, 

*32, 33 
Evans and Swain's Wooden Floor, 

92 
Exeter Hammer, *18 
Exogenous Timber, 28 
Exogens, 26 

and Endogens, Difference 

between, 28 

Expanding Centre Bits, *21 



Face Moulds for Sash Frame 
Heads, *465 

and Soffit Moulds for Circu- 
lar Door. -392, 393 

Fanlight and Casements, -443, 449 



560 



INDEX. 



Fanlight and Casements in Solid 
Frame, M46-449 

in Outer Door, *346-349 • 

.Pediment and, '541 

Fawcett's Wood-block Floor, *97 
Feather, Slip, *61 

Felt, Slag, 91 

Fibres, Twisted, in Timber, *41, 42 

Files, Saw, *17, 18 

, Woodworkers', *23 

Fillisters, Sash, *14 
Fir, Riga, *44 

, Scotch, 44 

, Spruce, 43, 44 

■ Timber, Converted, 43 

, Prussian, 44, 45 

, Unconverted, 44 

, White, 44 

Fireproof Partitions, 110 

Wooden Floors, *91-93 

Firmer Chisels, :: 11 
Fished Butt Joint, *59 

Joints, *57 

with Hardwood Keys, *58 

— , Keyed and Bolted, *58 

and Tabled Joints, *58 

Flat-head Screws, *25 
Floor, *68-97 

, Basement, *68, 69 

Binder, Determining Size of, 

84, 85 

Boards, 86-91 

, Cramping, 89, 90 

, Direction of Grain in, 

:: 88 
with Heading Joints 

Crossed, Laying, *89 

— , Joints for, *90, 91 

, Laying, *88-90 

■ , Oak Border Fitted to, 

*77 

, Planing Machine for, 87 

, Sizes of, 86, 87 

, Stacking, 87, 88 

, Timber for, 51, 86 

Brads, *90 

Cramps, *89, 90 

, Determining Size of Girder 

for, 85, 86 

.Double, *74-78 

, , Iron Binders for, *75, 77 

, , Steel Binders for, *77, 

78 
, , Wooden Binders for, 

*74. 75 

, Double-boarded, 91 

, Estimating Load on, 83 

.Fireproof, *9l-93 

, , Asbestos Slabs under, 

•91, 92 

, , Evans and Swain's, 92 

, , Hinton and Day's, 92 

, .Solid, *92 

.Framed, *78-80 

, Girders for, 78 

, , Stirrup Irons for, *80 

, Girder for, *85, 86 

.Ground, *68, 69 

, Herringbone Strutting for, 

*72 

Joint, Dowelled, *90 

.Edge, *90. 91 

, Headed, *90 

, Iron Tongue, *90 

, " Pavodilos." *91 

, Rebated, *90 

, and Filleted, *90 

, .Grooved and 

Tongued, *90 

, Straight, *90 

Joists, Bridging, Determin- 
ing Size of, 83, 84 

, Determining Sizes of, 

52 

, Supporting, 82 

.Weight on, 82, 83 

.Laying Folded, *88, 89 

, Load on, 83 



Floor, Pugging for, *91 

.Single, *69-72 

, Sound-proof, 91 

, Strutting, *8l, 82 

.Trimming Joist for, 71 

, Trimming Round Openings, 

72 

with Trussed Beams, *80, 81 

, Wood-block, *93-97 

, , Bitumen for, 94 

, .Chequer, *96 

, , Designs for, *96 

, , Duffy's Patent, *96 

, .Fawcett's, *97 

, , Fixing, 96 

,■ .Geary's Patent, *96 

, — — , Herringbone, *95 

, , Jointing, 96 

- — , , Laying, 94, 95 

, , Panel and Frame De- 
sign of, *96 

, , Parquet, 97 

, , Preparing Basement 

for, 93, 94 

, , Solid, 93 

, , Tile Design of, *96 

, , Turpin's Patent, *96 

, , Wood for, 93 

with Wrought Binder, *74, 

75 

Flooring, Laying Baltic, 89 

, Shippers' Marks on, 86 

, Stacking, 87 

, Timber for, 86 

Flying or Horizontal Shores, 
* 235-238 

■ Shores for Buildings of Un- 
equal Heights, *236 

Folded Floors, Laying, *88, 89 

Folding and Sliding Partitions, 
-544-549 

Forstner Auger Bit, *22 

Foundations, Pile, Timber for, 51 

Four-panelled Moulded Door, 
*333, 335, *342-346 

, Hanging, *337-340 

Outer Door, *346-349 

Foxiness in Timber, 41 
Foxtail Tenon Joints, *67 
Frame, Sash (see Sash Frame) 
Framed and Braced Door and 

Frame, *318-323 

, Hanging, 320 

. Making, *319 

Sliding Door, *326 

Door, *335 

Floors (see Floors, Framed) 

and Panelled Linings to 

Doorway, *516-519 

Frameless Stable Doors, *324, 325 
Frames, Door (see Door Frames) 
Framework, Trying Up, *326, 327 
Framing for Staging, Joints for, 

*60 
French Casements with Boxing 

Shutters, *449-458 

, Fitting, *454 

to Open Inwards, *443- 

446 

Nails, 24 

Front-entrance Door (see Door, 

Front-entrance) 
Frustum of Elliptical Cone, 
*497 



Gabled Dormer, * 182-184 
Gallery, Portable, *230, 231 
Galls, Rind, in Timber, 41 
Gantries, *215, 216 
Gantry, Bitch for, *216, 217 

, Derrick Tower, *221, 222 

, Dogs for, *217, 218 

, Erecting, *216, 217 

Joints, *218 

, Movable, to Support Travel- 
ler, *223, 224 

over Pavement, *218 

Strut Joints, *56 

, Tower, *221, 222 

for Traveller, =224 

Gauges, Cutting, *3 
, Marking, *3 

, Panel, *3 

Geary's Patent Wood-block Floor, 

*96, 97 
Geometrical Head Linings to 

Door and Window Openings, 

*494, 495 
Splayed Linings Veneered 

for Polished Work, *495 

Tools, *l-4 

Gimlet-handle Screwdrivers, 20 
Gimlets, *20 

Girder, Floor, Determining Size 
of, 85, 86 

for Framed Floor, 78 

Glasspaper, 22, 23 

Glazed Partition, Setting Out, 

::: 522, 523 
Glue, 25 
Glue-brush, 25 
Glue-pot, *25 
Glued Blockings, *63 
Gluing and Wedging-up Doors 

and Framing, *331 
Gothic Arch, Centre for, *266-268 
Gothic-on-circle Arch, Centering 

for, *264, 265 
Gouges, *13 
Grand Stand for Sports Ground, 

*228-230 
Grecian Ogee Base Moulding, *468 

Ovolo Moulding, *468 

Grindstones, *23 

Groin Vaulting, Centering for, 

*284-286 
Grooved and Tongued Joint, *62 
Ground Floors, *68, 69 
Guard Beads for Sash Frames, 

*467 
Gutters behind Parapet, *164 



Gable. Half-timbered, *206 

.Panelling, *210 

Treatment, *210 



Half-timber Framing, Timber for, 

51 

Work, *199-214 

, Angle-posts in, 201 

on Cottage, *202-204 

, Door and Window - 

frames in, *202 

, Forms of, *201 

on Gable, *206 

House, *205 

, Sham, *206, 208 

, Timber for, 199 

Hall Screen with Door, *523-525 
Halved Joints, *54, 55, *59 

. , Bevelled, *55 

, Double, *59 

, Dovetail Shouldered, 

*55 
Halving Joists on Partition Head, 

*72 
Hammer, Adze-eye, *18 



INDEX. 



561 



'144 



Hammer, Exeter, *18 

Heads, 18, 19 

.Warrington, *18 

Hammer-beam Roofs, 

, Raising, *144, 145 

Hammer-headed Key Joints, *67 
Hammer-setting Saw Teeth, *18 
Hand Saws (see Saw) 

Tools and Appliances, *l-25 

Hard Woods, 42, 43 

Hardwood Dado, Fixing, *491-493 

Door-casings, Fixing, *504-506 

Hatchets, *19 

Haunched Tenon Joints, *67 
Haunching Door Rail, *372 

and Scribing Rails, *415 

Headed Floor Joints, *90 
Heading Joints, *90 
Heads, Hammer, 18, 19 
Heart-shakes in Timber, *41 
Heartwood, 28, 29 
Heel-strap, *132 

for Tie-beam and Rafter, 

*129 

Hemispherical Dome, Centering 

for, *286-288 
Herringbone Strutting, *72, 81 

Wood-block Floor. *95 

Hexagonal Hopper, Bevels for, 

*552 
Hinges, Door, Fixing, *339, 340 
, Spring, for Swinging Doors, 

*541 
Hinton and Day's Wooden Floor, 

92 
Hip Rafters, Backing of, *166, 167 
, Dragon Tie at Foot of, 

*125, 128 
Hipped End of King-post Roof, 

*124, 125 

Mansard Roof, *196 

of Queen-post Roof 

Truss, *129 
Roof, Timbering for, 

*171 

Roof, Irregular, *160-163 

, , Setting Out, *160, 

161 
Hips, Bevels for, *173, 175 
for Roofs over Obtuse 

Angles, Bevels for, *170, 171 

and Purlins, Joints between, 

*166 

Holding Work, Tools for, *5-ll 
Holmsunds' Quality Marks on 

Timber, 52 
Honduras Mahogany, 50 
Hopper, Hexagonal, Bevels for, 

*552 
. Triangular, Mitered Angles 

of, *553, 554 
Horizontal or Flying Shore, *235 
House, Half-timbered, *205 
Housing Joint, 66, *67 

Joists to Trimmers, *71, 73 

Howe Roof Truss, *153 



Impulsion Tools, *18-20 
Irish Roof Trust, *154, 158 
Iron Tongue Floor Joint, *90 
Irons, Stirrup, *80 



Jack Planes, *13 

Rafters, Bevels for, *168, 169 



Jamb Linings of Door, Framed, 

*342, 344 
Four - panelled 

Moulded Door, *335 
Six-panelled Door, 

*346 
Joiners' Rods (see Rods) 

Work Prepared by Hand, 

♦326-332 

Joinery, Joints in, 61-67 
Jointing Beams to Posts and 

Struts, *61 
Joints, *54-67 

, Abutment, *61 

-, Angle Halved, *55 

of Beams to Posts and 

Struts, *60, 61 

for Beams and Posts, *59 

in Beams, Strength of, 59, 60 

, Bevelled Halving, *55 

, Bird's-mouthed, *55, 56 

for Boarding of Doors, *319 

, Box Pin, *62, 64 

, Brace and Post, *61 

.Bridle, *55 

, .Oblique, *55 

, Butt (see Butt Joint) 

in Carpentry, *54-61 

, Chase Mortice, *55, 56 

for Church Roof, *144, 148 

: Cogging, *55 

for Collar Beam Roof, *143, 

146 

to withstand Compression, 

*57 
and Cross 

Strain, *57, 58 
, Cross-halved, *54 

for Cross-strain, *57 

, Divided Tenon, *55 

, Diminished Dovetail Ledged, 

*62, 65 

for Dormer Windows, *183, 

*191, 194 

Double Abutment, *251 

Halved, *59 

Tenon, *67 

Dovetail, *61, 62 

Lap, *55 

Ledged, *62, 64 

Notching, *55 

Scarf, *58 

Slip-feather, *62 

Splayed, *58 

Dowelled, *62, 65 

Angle, *65 

: Post and Sill, *55 

Edge, *61, 62, *90, 91 
Fished, *57 

Butt, Double, *59 

, Single, *59 

.Keyed and Bolted, *58 

, with Hardwood Keys, *58 

■ and Tabled, *57 

Floor, *90, 91 (see also Floor 

Joint) 

- for Floor Boards, *90, 91 

■ Framing of Staging, *60 

-, Gantry Strut, *56 

- : Glued Blockings, *63 

-, Grooved and Tongued, *62 

-, Halved, *54, 55, 59 

-, .Double, *59 

-, Haunched Tenon, *67 

-, Hammer-headed Key, *67 

- at Head of Queen-post Roof 
Truss, *131, 132 

-.Heading, *90 

-, Housing, *66, 67 

- for King-post Roof Truss, 
*118, 120 

-, Lapped, *62, 64 

-. , with Keys and Straps, 

*57 

- for Ledged Doors, *316 

■ Lengthening Beams and 

Posts. *57-59 

-, Matched and Beaded, *62 



Joints for Meeting Rail and Stile 

of Top Sash, *418 

, Mitre Tongued, *62 

, Mitered Butt, *56 

, and Tenoned, *61 

, , Grooved and Tongued, 

*63 
, Mortice and Tenon (see 

Joint, Tenon, below) 

.Notched, *55 

, Obtuse Angle, *61 

, Grooved and 

Tongued, *63 
, Mitered, Grooved 

and Tongued, *63 

, Rebated, *63 

, , Grooved and 

Staff Beaded, *63 
, Parallel Scarf, with Joggled 

Ends, *59 

for Pavement Gantry, *218 

, Plain Butt, *62 

, Mitre, *62 

.Ploughed and Cross 

Tongued, *62 

between Post, Corbel and 

Beam, *60 

Purlins and Hips, *166 

for Quarter Partitions, *109 

Queen-post Roof Truss, 

*128, 129 

between Rafter and Tie- 
beam, *129 

for Rafters, *133 

; Raking Scarf with Butt 

End, *57 

, , for Ridges, *58 

.Rebated, *62 

-, Butt, *62 

, and Filleted, *62 

, Grooved, *63 

, , Grooved, and Staff 

Beaded, *63 

, , Tongued, *62 

, and Mitre, *62 

, , Mitered and Double- 
tongued, *63 

, and Staff Beaded, *63 

, , Tongued and Staff 

Beaded, *63 

■ between Roof Hips and 

Ridge, *131 

for Sash Frame, *416 

, Scarf, Splayed with Folding 

Wedges, *59 

, , Tredgold's Rule for Pro- 
portioning, *59 

, Scarfed, with Folding 

Wedges, *59 

.Screwed Straight, *62, 65 

•, Secret Dovetail, *62, 64 

, Mitered, *62, 64 

for Semicircular Arch Cen- 
terings, *254, 256 

Railway Arch Shoring, 

*248, 249 
, Shouldered Dovetail Halv- 
ing, *55 

— , Tenon, *55 

, Single Tenon, *67 

--, Splayed Scarf, : 59, 62 

; , with Folding 

Wedges, *59 
, , with Iron Plates, 

*58 

-, Splay-rebated, *62 

— — , Stump or Stub Tenon, *55 

, Straight, *62 

in Struts and Beams, 

Strength of, 59, 60 

.Strut and Post, *61 

.Tabled, *57 

, Scarf, *59 

, , with Keys 

Plates, *58 

, and Splayed Scarf, 

.Tenon, *55, 56, *66, 67, 

319, *328-330 



and 



*57 
'317- 



562 



INDEX. 



Joints, Tenon, Application of, 67 

—.Double, *67 

—.Dovetail, *67 

—.Foxtail, *67 

— , Haunched, *67 

—.Pinned, *67 

— , Proportioning, 67 

— , Single, *67 

— , Stump or Stub, *67 

— , Tusk, *67 
, Tenoned and Bird's-mouth 
Shouldered, : 61 

for Tension, *57 

and Compression, 

Cross Strain, 

*57 

, Toe, *56 

, Tredgold Notching, *55 

for Trussed Partitions, *98, 

100 

Trussed Framed Parti- 
tions, *101, 102 

, Tusk Tenon, *56 

. and Keyed, *71 

. , between Tie-beams, 

*125 

, Twin-tenon, *67 

, Vertical Scarf, *59 

for Wood-block Floor, 96 

Joist, Bridging, Determining Size 

of, 83, 84 
, Ceiling, Binder Chased-mor- 

tised for, *74 
, Floor, Determining Sizes of, 

82 

, , Supporting, *82 

, , Timber for, 51 

, , Trimming, 71 

> , Weight on, 82, 83 

.Halving, on Partition Head, 

*72 
, Housing, to Trimmers, *71. 

73 

, Supporting, by Walls, *82 

ic ^all Plate for Supporting, 

82 



Key Joints, Hammer-headed, *67 
King-bolt Roof Truss, *149, 150 
King-post and Queen-post Truss, 

*131, 132 

Truss, *118 

, Hipped End of, *124, 125 

, Joints for, *118 

, Securing Tie-beam and, *124 

Kirkcaldy's Experiments on Beam 

Strengths, 40 
Knife, Draw, *13 
" Knock-up " Bench Tops, *8 
Knots in Timber, 41 



Ledged and Braced Door, *316- 
318 

Doors (see Doors, Ledged) 

and Frames, *312-318 

Levels, Spirit, *4 

Linen Press, Joiners' Rods for, 

*307, 308 
Lining Log Timber, *38 
Lining Material, 481, 482 

, Pitchpine for, 481 

Linings, Bevels for, *551, 552 

Framed and Panelled, for 

Doorway, *516-519 

, Geometrical Head, to 

Door and Window Openings, 

*494, 495 
, Splayed, built up in 

Sections, *495 
, , Veneered for 

Polished Work, *495, 496 

for Sash Frame, Elliptical- 
headed, *459 

, Soffit, Elliptical Conical, 

*497 

, , for Elliptical-headed 

Opening, *496-502 

, Veneered Splayed, to Open- 
ing with Circular Head, "bQ3 

Log Timber, Lining, *38 

London Screwdrivers, *20 



Lamb's Tongue Moulding, *468 
Lancashire-pattern Pincers, *11 
Lapped Joint, *62, 64 

with Keys and Straps, 

*57 
Laying Floor Boards, *88-90 
Lead Plugs, *485 
Lean-to Roofs, *113-116 



M 



Mahogany, 50, 51 

; Baywood, 50, 51 

, Honduras, 50 

, Panama, 50 

, Spanish, 50 

Mallets, *19 

Mansard Roof, *134-143 

, Belidor's System of Set- 
ting Out, *134 

, Dormer for, *134, 136, 

*197, 198 

with Flat Top, Dormer 

in, *197, 198 

, Hipped End, *196 

, Ordinary Form of, *134 

, Principles in Design- 
ing, *138, 140, 141 

over Room with Arched 

Ceiling, *142, 143 

— — without Trusses, *138 

Marking Gauges, *3 

Tools, *3 

Work for Sawing, *3 

Marks on Timber, 52, 53 
Matchboarding, *61 

Match and Beaded Joint, *62 
McNeile's Process of Seasoning 

Timber, 31 
Medullary Rays, 26 
Mitering, Appliances for, *4 
■ Door Bead, '317 

Mouldings, *479 

and Scribing, Marking 

Mouldings for, *480 

TemDlate, *370 

Mitre Block, *4 

Box, *4 

Joint, Plain, *62 

, Tongued, *62 

Lines on Mouldings, *554. 555 

, Setting Out, -554-556 

Shooting Block, *4 

Square, *3 

Mitered Angles of Triangular 
Hopper, *553, 554 

Butt and Tenoned Joint, *61 



Mitered Butt Joints, *56 

Joint, Secret, *62, 64 

Mortice Chisels, *11 

Joints, Chase, *55. 56 

and Tenon, Draw-boring, *318 

Joints (see Joint, 

Tenon) 
Mortising and Tenoning Door, 

Door-frame, 369 

Mould, Thumb, Working, *472 
Moulded and Panelled Framed 

Partition, *520-522 
Moulding Frame of Front-en- 
trance Door, *369 
Mouldings, *468-480 

, Angle or Returned Bead, *468 

, Architrave, *468 

, Astragal, and Fillets, *468 

, Bead Architrave, ; 468 

. Bolection, *363, *468 

, , Working, *472 

, Cavetto Quirked Ogee, *468 

, Cleaning Up, *474, 475 

, Common, *469 

, Cornice, Working, *473 

, , Circular, *473, 474 

, Curved Thumb Rebate Plane 

for, *470 

, Cutting Gauge for, *471 

, Cyma Recta, ; 468 

, Diminishing, *475, 476 

, Door, *362 

, , Planting, 332, 333 

, Double Face Architrave, *468 

, Torus, *468 

, Enlarging, *476 

, Fixing and Fitting, *475 

, Fitting, for Panelled 

Linings, *363 

, Grecian Ogee Base, *468 

, Ovolo, *468 

, Lamb's Tongue, *468 

, Marking, for Mitering and 

Scribing, *480 

.Mitering, *479, 480, *554, 555 

, , Template for, *370 

: Nosing, *468 

, Ogee Panel, Working, *472 

, Ovolo, *468 

, Parting Bead, :: 468 

, Planes for Straight, *469, 470 

, Quirk Routers for, *471 

, Quirked Bead, *468 

, Grecian Ogee Panel, '468 

, Ogee and Bead, *468 

, Raking, round External 

Angle, *476, 477 
, , on Internal Angle, *477, 

478 
, Intersecting Obtuse 

Angle with Horizontal, *478 
, Ramping, to Given Point, 

*479, 480 

, Reverse Ogee, *468 

.Roman Ovolo, *468 

: Scotia, *468 

, Scratch Tools for, *470 

— , Scribing, *480 

, Setting Out, *475, 476 

— -.Shaped, Tools for, ;i 470-472 

■ -, Staff Bead, *468 

.Straight, Planes for, *469, 

470 

, Sunk, 363 

, " Thumb," *468 

, Hollows and Rounds for 

471 

, Mould for, *472 

, Tools for Shaped, ;: 470-472 

, Torus, *468 

, Varieties of, *468, 469 

Moulds, Edge, Setting Out, *499 
" Mouse " used in Replacing Sash- 
line, *422, 423 
Mulleting Door Panels, *331 
Muntins. Door, Setting Out, *327, 

328, *352 



INDEX. 



563; 



Nails, *24 

: Brads, 24 

.French, 24 

, Oval Clasp, 24 

, Punches for, 24 

, Rose-head, 24 

, Wrought Clasp, 24 

Niche, Centering for Elliptical, 

*281-284 
Norwegian Balks, 45 

- Deals, 45 
Nose Bits, 21 
Nosing Moulding, *468 
Notched Joints, *55 
, Tredgold, *55 

Collar into Edge of Eafters, 

*118 

Notching, Dovetail, *118 

Joints, Dovetail, *55 

Nova Scotia Oilstones, 23, 24 



Oak, American, 48 

.Baltic, 48 

, Converting, *35 

, English, 48 

Panels, Cutting Timber to 

Obtain, *36 

Panelwork, *490, 491 

— , Wainscot, 48 

Obtuse Angle Grooved and 

Tongued Joint, *63 

Rebated Joints, *63 

, Grooved and 

Staff Beaded, *63 
■ Mitered, Grooved 

and Tongued Joint, *63 
Ochre Box, 39 
Octagonal Pyramidal Roof, *176- 

179 
Ogee Panel Mouldings, Working, 

*472 
Oilstones, 23, 24 

, Arkansas, 23, 24 

, Canada, 24 

, Charnley Forest, 23 

, Emery, 24 

, Nova Scotia, 23, 24 

, Oil for, 24 

, Substitutes for, 24 

.Turkey, 23 

, Washita, 23, 24 

Open Timber Roofs, *143, 144 
Openings in Floors, Trimming 

Round, *72 
Oval Arches, *253 
Ovolo Moulding, *468 



Panama Mahogany, 50 
Panel Gauge, *3 

and Frame Design of Wood- 
block Floor, *96 



Panelled Linings, Constructing, 

*3$5 
for Doorways, *363-365, 

*516-519 
, Fitting Moulding for, 

363 

and Moulded Framed Parti- 
tion, *520-522 

Wainscoting, *507, 508 

Panelling and Enriched Cornice, 

*508-516 

in Half-timber Work, *210 

Panels, Bead and Flush, *356 
, Head, Geometrical Setting 

Out for, *500, 501 

, Bolection Moulded, *357-358 

■ of Circular Doors, *381 

for Composite Doors, *377 

Vestibule Framing, *540 

Door, *330, 331 

,Mulleting, *331 

, Repairing Split, 340-342 

Raised, Working, *474 „ 
Replacing, in Doors, *342 
Setting Out for, *501-503 
Tympanum, *538 

Panelwork, Oak, *490, 491 

Parallel Scarf Joint with Joggle 
Ends, *59 

Parapet, Gutters behind, *164 

Paring' Tools. *11-15 

Parquet Floors, 97 

Parting Bead Moulding, *468 

Partition, *520 

, Braced and Trussed, *98-110 

, , for Two Doorways, *109 

, Brick-nogged, 98 

: Corridor Screen with Door, 

*525-528 

, Cross, *103 

.Fireproof, 110 

■ -, Folding and Sliding, *544 549 

, Framed, Panelled and 

Moulded, *520-522 

, Glazed, Setting Out, *522, 523 

: Hall Screen, *523-525 

Head, Halving Joists on, *72 

.Joints for, *101. 102 

, Panelled and Moulded 

Framed, *520-522 

, Quarter, *109 

, , through Two Storeys, 

*109 

, .Joints for, *109 

, Sliding and Folding, : 544-549 

, Sound-proof, 111 

, Staircase, *103, 104 

, Stud, *98 

, Timber, *98-lll 

.Trussed, *98, 100, *109, 110 

, Framed, *101 

, .Joints for, *100-102 

: Vestibule Screen, *529, 530 

Wall, Door in, *333, 335 

Partitions and Screens, *520-549 
Pavement Gantry, *218 

" Pavodilos " Floor Joint, *91 
Percussion Tools, *18-20 
Pilasters of Vestibule Framing, 

*537, 539 
Pile Foundations, Timber for, 51 
Pin Bits, 21 
Pincers, *11 
Pine, American Red, 47 

, Yellow, 47 

Pinned Tenon Joints, *67 

Pit Sawing, Marking Timber for, 

38, 39 
Pitch of Roof, Determining, 112, 

113 
Pitchpine, 47, 48 

for Lining, 481 

Log, Converting, *35 

Pivot for Swinging Door, *544 
Planes, *13-15 

,Bead, *14 

, Compass, 14 

.Fillister, 14 



Planes, Jack, 13 

, Rebate, *14 

, Router, 15 

, Sash Fillister, *14 

.Side Fillister, *14, 15 

, Smoothing, *13, 14 

for Straight Mouldings, *469 a . 

470 

, Trueing, *13 

Planing Machine for Floor- 
Boards, 86, 87 

, " Shimer," 87 

Plank Roof Truss, *156, 157, 159 

Planking to Earth Waggons^ 
Timber for, 51 

Planks, 43 

, Converting Timber into, *35- 

Defined, 35 

Planting Door Mouldings, 332,. 

333 
Plier Saw Set, *18 
Ploughed and Cross Tongued; 

Joint, *62 
Plugs, Iron-cased, *485 

.Lead, *485 

, Round Wooden, *486 

, Wooden, for Grounds, *482 

Plumb Rule, *4 

Pockets, Cutting, in Sash Frame,, 

M18-421 
Post and Brace Joint, *61 

Strut Joint, *61 

Preserving Timber, 34, 35 

, Bethell's Process of, 34 

, Bouchere's Process of, 34» 

, Burnett's Process of, 34 1 

Prussian Fir Timber, 44, 45 

" Pugging," *91 

Pulley Stiles, Setting Out, *409,. 

410 
of Solid Mullion Sash 

Frame, *436 
Punches, Nail, *24 
Purlins, Bevels for, *171, 173 

Trimmed to Chimneys, *165,. 

166 

and Hips, Joints between,. 

*166 

Pyramidal Octagonal Roof, *176- 
179 



Quality Marks on Timber, *45^ 

53 
Quarter Partitions, *109 

, Joints for, *109 

Through Two Storeys,. 

*109 
Quarterings, 35 

Queen-bolt Roof Truss, *149, 151 
Queen-post Roof Truss, *128-132 
with Hipped End, 

*129, 131 

, Joints for, *128 

, Joints at Head of,. 

*131, 132 
, Three-way Strap 

for, *127, 128 
Quirk Routers for Mouldings, 

*471 
Quirked Bead Mouldings, *468 

Grecian Ogee Panel Mould- 
ing, *468 

Ogee and Bead Moulding,. 

*468 

Ovolo and Bead Moulding^.. 

*468 

Fillet, *468 



564 



INDEX. 



Radius Rod, Setting Out Curves 

with, *251 
Rafters, Bevels for, *166-169 

, Hip, Backing of, *166, 167 

, Jack, Bevels for, *168, 169 

, , Fixing, *166 

, Joints for, *133 

-, Lengths for, *166, 167 

, Securing Principal, to Tie- 
beam, *132 

and Tie-beam, Joints be- 
tween, *129, 133 

. Valley, Fixing, *166 

Rails. Door, Setting Out, *328 

, Sash Frame, Template for, 

*416, 417 
Rakers for Shoring, *241, 242 
Raking Mouldings, *476-478 

Scarf with Butt End, *57 

for Ridges, *58 

Shores, *233-235 

, Erecting, *233, 234 

Ramping Mouldings to Given 

Point, *479, 480 
Rasps, "Woodworker's, *23 
Rebate Planes, *14 
Rebated Butt Joint, *62 

and Filleted Joint', *62 

Floor Joint, *90 

Grooved Joint, *63 

, Grooved, and Staff Beaded 

Joints, *63 

, Tongued Joint, *62 

, Floor Joint, 

*90 
Joint, *62 

and Mitered Joint, *62 

, Mitered and Double-tongued 

Joint, *63 

and Staff Beaded Joint, *63 

, Tongued and Staff Beaded 

Joint, *63 
Rebating Door Frame, *318, 319 

Frame of Front-entrance 

Door, *369 

and Moulding Sash Bars, 

*453, 454 

Recess Cupboard, Joiners' Rods 

for, -303-306 
Red Deal, 43 

Pine, American, 47 

Ribs, Bent, Roof Trussed with, 

*155, 159 
"Riga Fir, 44 (see also Russian Tim- 
ber) 
Rind Galls in Timber, 41 
Bod, Radius, Setting Out Curves 

with, *251 
Rods for Boxed Sash Frame, *293- 

296 
Canted Bay "Window, 

*300, 302 
Deal Door with Bead 

Butt, *292 

Doors, *289-293 

— — Double-margin Door, 

*381-384 
Four-panelled Moulded 

Square Door and Frame, 

*290-292 

— Glazed Partitions, *522 

Ledged and Beaded 

Door and Frame, *289. 290 

Linen Press, *307, 308 

Panelled and Moulded 

Partition, *521 
Portable Cupboard, *310, 

311 
Recess Cupboard Front 

in Two Heights, *303-306 

Skylight, *302, 303 

Solid Casement Frame, 

*296, 297 
Square Bay Window, 

*297-299 



Roman Ovolo Moulding, *468 
Roof, Belfast, •154, 158 

, Bent Rib, *155, 159 

: Bevels and Lengths of Hips 

and Rafters, *166, 167. 170. 171 
Bowstring, *154, 158 
Church, *144, 147, 148 
Circular, of Boards, *159 
Collar Beam, *143, 144 

, with Apse End, *143 

, Joints for, *143, 146 

Composite, *149-154 

, for Flat Roof, *153, 154 

Couple-close, *117, 118 
Dormer Windows in, *181-198 
Dragon Tie at Foot of Hip 

Rafter, *125, 128 
Flat, Composite Truss for, 

'153, 154 

: Gutter behind Parapet, *164 
Hammer Beam, *144 

, Raising, *144, 145 

Howe, *153 

Irregular Hipped, *160-163 

, Setting Out, *160, 

161 
Irish, *154, 158 
King-bolt, *149, 150 
King-post, *118 
, Hipped End of, *124, 

125 

, Joints for, *118, 120 

King- and Queen-post, *131, 

132 
Lean-to, *113-116 
Light. *155, 159 
Mansard, *134-143, 196 
, for Arched Ceiling, *142, 

143 

— , Belidor's System of Set- 
ting Out, *134 

— , Dormer for, *134, 136, 

184, 186 

, Principles in Designing, 

138, *140, 141 

, without Trusses, *138 

Octagonal Pyramidal, *176- 

179 
, Open Timber, *143, 144 

Pitch, Determining, *112, 

113 

— -, Setting Off, *112, 113 

, Plank, *156, 157, 159 

, Queen-bolt, *149, 151 

, Queen-post, *128-132 

, , with Hipped End, *129, 

131 

, .Joints for, *128 

, , at Head of, *131, 

132 
, , Three-way Strap for, 

*127, 128 

Rafters (see Rafters) 

, Scantlings for, 121 

: Securing Tie-beam to 

Rafter, *132 
.Self-supporting Shed,'*115 

- for Shed. *160 

Small House, *117 

.Span, *116-118 

, , with Collar Braces, *116 

, Collar. *118, 119 

Supported by Iron Columns, 

*122, 124 

Truss, Raising, *144 

■ — - , Timber for, 51 

, Timbering for Hipped End, 

*171 

Timbers, Arrangement of, 

*163, 164 

.Villa, *163, 164 

Rose-head Nails, 24 
Rot, Dry, 41, 42 

, Wet, 42 

Round-head Screws, *25 
Router Planes. *15 
Rule, Plumb. *4 
, Boxwood, *1 



Russian Timber, 43-46 

, Quality Marks on, *45, 

46 
White Deals, 46 



Sap in Timber, Function of, 28 
Sapwood in Timber, 28, 29, 41 
Sash Bars, Rebating and Mould- 
ing, *453, 454 

Construction, Application of 

Templates in, *417 

Cords, Removing and Attach- 
ing, *423, 424 

Cramps, *421 

. Elliptical Head of, *459, 460 

Fillisters, *14 

Frame, *404 

Beads, Removing, *423 

, Boxed, Rods for, *293- 

296 

, Casement, *428-430 

, Circle-on-circle, *463-467 

, Circular Bull's-eye, *461 

Cords, *423 

■ , Cramping, 416, 421, 422 

, Cutting Pockets in, *418- 



421 
tian 



461 



-, Double Weight Vene- 

, *437-439 

-, Double-hung, *427 

, Elliptical-headed, *458- 



, , Linings of, *459 

, Fitting Together, *411, 

•413, 414 

with Framed and 

Splayed Linings, *458-461 

, Guard Beads for, *467 

Head. *465 

, Face Moulds for, 

*465 

, Preparing, *466, 467 

, Setting Out, *409 

Hung on Pivots, *462, 

463 

, Joints for, *416 

Linings, *466 

, Materials for, 404 

Meeting Rails, *416, 417 

- , Dovetailing, 

*417. 418 

, Template for, 

*417 

, *' Mouse " for, *422 

Pocket, *418 

Pulley Stiles, *409, 410 

Rails, Template for, *417 

, Setting Out, *407, 408, 

414 

Sills for, *406, 
Solid, with 
Sash, *427, 428 

— Mullion 
*431-437 

Square Centre, *461, 462 
Venetian, *431-441 

.Beads for, 436, 437 

, Construction of, 

"435, 436 

-, Double-weight, *437- 



439 



"436 



407 
Movable 



Venetian, 



-, Fitting Up, *437 

-.Large, *439-441 

-, Pulley Stiles of, 

-, Quantities for, 435 
-.Setting Out, *436 



INDEX. 



565. 



Sash Bars, Wedging Up. *421, 422 

Line, Materials for Replac- 
ing Broken, 422 

, Replacing Broken, *422- 

427 

Windows with Boxed Shut- 
ters, M41-443 

Saw, Bow, *17 
, Dovetail, 17 

Piles, *17, 18 

, Hand, *16-18 

with Nihbed Back, *16 

Sets with Gauge, *18 

, , Plier, *18 

, Sharpening, *17, 18 

Teeth, Hammer Setting, *18 

, Levelling Down, 18 

.Tenon, *17 

Vice, *17 

Sawing, Marking Timber for, 3, 
*38, 39 

Stools, *9 

Scantlings Defined, 35 

Scotch Fir, 44 

Scotia Moulding, *468 

Scarf Joint, Dovetail, *58 

-, Parallel, with Joggle 

Ends, *59 

, Raking, for Ridges, *58 

, Splayed, *59 

, , with Folding 

Wedges, *59 

, , with Iron Plates, 

*58 

, Tabled, *58, 59 

, Tredgold's Rule for Pro- 
portioning, *59 

, Vertical, *59 

Scarfed Joint with Folding 
Wedges, *59 

Scrapers, Steel, *22 

Scraping Tools, *22-24 

Scratch Tools for Mouldings, *470 

Screens, *520 

, Corridor, with Door, *525- 

528 

, Hall, with Door, *523-525 

and Partitions, *520 

for Vestibule, *529, 530 

Screwdrivers, *20 

, Automatic, *20 

— , Brace, 20 

, Cabinet, 20 

, Gimlet-handle, 20 

.London, *20 

Screwed Straight Joint, *62, 65 
Screws, Bench, *7, 8 
— , Cup Wood, *25 

, Flat-head, *25 

— -, Round-head, *25 

, Wood. *24, 25 

Scribing Door Rail, *372 

Tools, *3 

Seasoning Timber (see Timber) 
Secret Dovetail Joint, *62, 64 

Mitered Joint, *62, 64 

Segment of Circle, Obtaining 

Radius of, *251 
Segmental Arches, Centerings for, 

*257 

, Setting Out, *250 

Bridge, Centre for, 272, *273 

Stone Arch, Centering for, 

*277-279 

Segmental-headed Opening for 
French Casements, *449-458 

Semicircular Arches, Centering 
for, *254, 256 

Setting Saw Teeth, *18 

Sham Dado, *486-490 

Half-timber Work, *206, 208 

Sharpening Saw, *17, 18 

Shaving Tools, *11-15 

Shed Roof, *160 

" Shimer " Patent Floor-board 
Planing Machine, 87 

Shippers' Marks on Flooring, 86 

Timber, 52 



Shooting Block, Donkey 's-ear, *4 
, Mitre, *4 

Board, *4 

Shop Fronts, Timber for, 51 
Shores for Buildings of Unequal 
Heights, *236 

, Dead or Vertical, *239 

, Horizontal or Flying, *235 

, Raking, *233-235 

.Trestle, *245 

, Vertical or Dead, 239 

Shoring, *215, 231 

Church Arcade, *243-247 

Corner House, *239-242, 366 

, Dead, for Converting Dwell- 
ing into Shop, *239-242 

, Rakers for, *241, 242 

to Railway Arch, *247-249 

Timbers, Scantlings of, 233 

Shouldered Dovetail Halving 

Joints, *55 

Tenon Joints, *55 

Shoulders of Doors, Posts for, 

*317 
Shrinkage of Timber during 

Seasoning, 34 
Shutter, Door with Movable, *351- 

357 

Fitted in Outer Door, *351-357 

Shutters, Boxing, for Doorway, 

*516-519 
•, , French Casements with, 

*449-458 
Sill, Oak, for Doors, *317 

for Sash Frame, *406, 407 

, Window, Timber for, 52 

Skeleton Jambs for Doorway, 

364 
Skew Arch Bridge, Centering for, 

*280, 281 
Skirtings, *481 

in Cottage Work, *482 

Skylight, Joiners' Rods for, *302, 

303 
Slag Felt, 91 
Sliding Bevel, *3 

Door, Framed and Braced, 

*326 

and Folding Partitions, 

* 544-549 

Slip Feather, *61 
Smoke-dried Timber, 31 
Smoothing Planes, *13, 14 
Soffit of Arch, Developing, *258, 

259 
and Jamb Door Linings, 

Jointing, *449 
, Geometrical Construction, 

for, *497, 498 
, Obtaining Development of, 

498 

Lining, Elliptical Conical, 

*497 

for Elliptical - headed 

Opening, *496-502 

out of Solid, *499, 500 

Soft Woods, 42, 43 
Sound-proof Floors, *91 

Partitions, 111 

Span Collar Roof with Attic, *118, 
119 

■ Roofs, *1 16-118 

with Collar Braces, *116 

Spanish Chestnut, 48, 49 

Mahogany, 50 

Spirit Levels, *4 
Splay-rebated Joint, *62 
Splayed Joint, Dovetailed, *58 
Lining, Veneered, 503, 504 

Linings to Outer Doors, *346 

Two-panelled Door, 

360, 361 

Scarf Joint, *59 

with Folded Wedges, 

*57, 59 

Iron Plates, *58 

Spokeshaves, *13 
Spoon Bits, 21 



Spring Dividers, *3, 4 

Hinge for Swinging Doors,. 

*541 

Spruce, American White, 47 

Fir, 43, 44 

Square, Crenellated, 3 

, Joiner's, 3 

, Mitre, *3 

, Plumb, *4, 5 

, Try, *3 

Stable Doors, Frameless, *324, 325t- 

Stacking Floor Boards, 87, 88 

Timber, *29, 30 

Horizontally, 30 

Staff Bead Moulding, *468 

Staging, *215 

, Builder's, *219, 220 

, Framing for, *60 

Stair Treads. Timber for, 51 

Staircase Partitions Through Two- 
Storeys, *103, 104 

Stand for Spectators in Window,. 
*224 

Sports Ground, *228-230 

between Two Walls, 227 

Star-shakes in Timber, *41 
Steam Chest for Artificially 

Seasoning Timber, *33, 34 
Steel Binders for Double Floors,. 
*77, 78 

Scrapers, *22 

Stiles, Door, Marking Out, *352 

, , Setting Out, *327, 328 

, Pulley, Setting Out *409, 410> 

, , of Solid Mullion Sash 

Frame, *436 
Stirrup Irons for Framed Floors, 

*80 
Stone Gabled Dormer Window, 

*196, 197 
Stools, Sawing, *9 
Stops, Bench [see Bench Stops) 

for Doors, *318 

Straightedge, *3 

Strut and Post Joint, *61 

Strutting, *81, 82 

, Herringbone, *70, 81 

, Solid, *81, 82 

Struts and Beams, Strength of 

Joints for, *59, 60 
Stud Partitions, Timber, *98 
Stump or Stub Tenon Joints, *55, 

67 
" Sturtevant " Method of Drying 

Timber, *32 
Sunk Moulding, 363 
Swedish Deals, 45 

, Quality Marks on, 45 

Timber, 43 

Swing Door Frame, *535 
and Vestibule Framing, 

*531 
Swinging Doors, Hanging, *541- 

544 

, Pivot for, *544 

, Spring Hinge for, *541 



Tabled and Fished Joint, *58 

Joints, *57 

Scarf Joint, *59 

with Keys and 

Plates, *58 

and Splayed Scarf Joints, *57 

Teak, 49, 50 

, Owner's Mark on, *49 

, Quantity Marks on, *49 



.566 



INDEX. 



Template, Mitering, *370 

for Sash Frame Rails, *417 

Tenon, Barefaced, *319 

. Cutting, *330 

Joints, *55, 56, *66, 67, *317- 

319, *328-330 

, Application of, 67 

, Divided, *55 

, Double, *67 

, Dovetail, *67 

for Doors, 318, 319 

, Foxtail, *67 

— , Haunched, *67 

, Pinned, *67 

, Proportioning, 67 

, Single, *67 

, Stump or Stub, *55, 67 

, Tusk, 56, 67 

, Twin, *67 

Saw, *17 

Sawn and Ploughed, *415 

Tenoned and Bird's-mouthed 

Shouldered Joint, *61 
Tenoning and Cogging, Connect- 
ing Post by, *61 
Tension, Joints for, *57 

and Compression, Joints for, 

*57 

Cross Strain, Joints for, 

Thumb Hollows and Rounds for 
Mouldings, :: 470, 471 

Moulding, *468 

Rebate Plane for Mouldings, 

*470 

Thunder-shakes in Timber, 41 
Tie, Dragon, *125 
Tie-beam, Cambering, 133 

and King-post, Securing, *124 

Rafter, Joint between, 

*129, *133, 134, *136, 137 

, Heel Strap for, *129 

, Securing, to Rafter, *132 

Tie-beams, Tusk Tenon Joint be- 
tween, *125 

Tile Design of Wood-block Floor, 
*96 

Timber, *26-53 

, American Methods of Season- 
ing, *31, 32 
Annual Rings in, 42 
Artificially Seasoning, 30-34 
Balk, 29 

, Defects in, *40 

, Lining, *38 

Beams, Calculating Strength 
of, *39, 40 

, Kirkaldy's Experiments 

on Strength of, 40 

, Brands on, 52 

, Converted, *35 

, Creosoting, 42 

, Cup-shakes in, *40 

cut into Planks, *35 

, Doatiness in, 41 

for Dock Gates, 51 

- Doors, 51 

, Dry Rot in, 41, 42 

, Endogenous, 28 

, Erith's Automatic Drier for, 

*32, 33 
, Exogenous, 28 

for External Doo^ 51 

, Fir, Converted, 43 

, , Unconverted, 44 

for Floor Boards, 51, 86 

Blocks, 93 

Joists, 51 

Flooring, 86 

, Shippers' Marks 

on, 86 

, Formation of, *26, 27 

, Foxiness in, 41 

, Good, Qualities of, 38 

for Half -timber Work, 51, 199 

, Hard Woods, 42, 43 

, Heart-shakes in. *41 

, Heartwood, 28, 29 



Timber. Holmsunds*, Quality 
Marks on, 52 

for Internal Doors, 51 

, Knots in, 41 

. Lining Log, *38 

, Marking, for Pit Sawing, *38, 

39 

Partitions, *98-lll (see also 

Partitions) 

■ for Pile Foundations, 51 

Pit Sawing, Marking, 

•38, 39 
Planking to EaTth Wag- 
gons, 51 

Preservation, 34, 35 

, Bethell's Process of, 34 

■ , Bouchere's Process of, 

34 

, Burnett's Process of, 34, 

35, 42 

Underground, 42 

, Prussian Fir, 44, 45 

Quality Marks, *45, 46. 53 

, Dantzic, *45 

, Holmsunds', 52 

, Riga, *45 

, Wifsta Warfs', 52, 

53 
, Rind Galls in, 41 

for Roof Trusses, 51 

■ , Russian, 43, *45, 46 

, , Quality Marks on, *45, 

46 

, Sap in, Function of, 28 

, Sapwood, 28, 29, 41 

, Seasoned, Advantages of, 29 

Seasoning, *29-34 

, Artificial, *30-34 

, Erith's Method of, *32, 

33 

, McNeile's Process of, 31 

— , Natural Process of, 29, 

30 

, Shrinkage during, *34 

, " Sturtevant " Method 

of, *32 

, Selecting, 38 

, Shipping Marks on, 52 

for Shop Fronts, 51 

Shrinking during Seasoning, 

*34 

, Smoke-dried, 31 

, Soft Woods, 42, 43 

Stacked Horizontally, 30 

, Stacking, *29, 30 

for Stair Treads, 51 

, Star-shakes in, *41 

, Steam Chest for Seasoning, 

*33, 34 
, Stiffest Beam Cut from 

Round Log, *38 

■ , Strength of, *39, 41 

: Strongest Beam Cut from 

Round Log, *37 

, Structure of, *26 

. " Sturtevant " Method of 

Drying, *32 

, Swedish, 43 

, Thunder-shakes in, 41 

Trees, Growth of, *26 

, Tried-up Edges of, 327 

, Trying Up, 326, 327 

, Twisted Fibres in, 41, 42 

, Upsets in, *42 

, Varieties of, 43-51 

for Various Purposes, 51, 52 

, Waney Edges in, *42 

for Weather-boarding, 51, 52 

, Weight of, 39 

, Wet Rot in, 42 

, Wifsta Warfs Quality Marks 

on. 52, 53 

, Wind-cracks in, *42 

for Window Sills, 52 

Wood-block Floors, 93 

Timbering for Hipped End Roof, 

*171 
Toe Joints, *56 



'5-11 



'5-11 



Tongued Butt Joint, *62 
Tools, *l-25 

, Abrading, *22-24 

, Boring, *20-22 

, Classification of, 1 

, Geometrical, *l-4 

for Holding Work, " 

, Impulsion, *18-20 

, Marking, *3 

, Paring, *11-15 

of Percussion, *18-20 

, Scraping, *22-24 

, Scribing, *3 

, Shaving, *11-15 

for Supporting Work, 

Torus Moulding, *468 

Tower Gantry, Derrick, *221, 222 

Traveller, Gantry to Support, 

*223, 224 
Tredgold's Centering, *277 
Notching Joints, *55 

Rule for Proportioning Scarf 

Joints, *59 

Trestle Shores, *245 

Trestles. *9 

Triangular Hopper, Mitered 

Angles of, *553, 554 
Tried-up Edges of Timber, 327 
Trimmer, Housing Joists to, *71, 

73 

and Joists, Tusk Tenon and 

Keyed Joint for, *71 

, Supporting Arch, *72 

Trimming Joists, *72 
for Floor, *71 

round Openings, *72-74 

Trueing Planes, *13 

Trussed Beams, Floors with, *80, 
81 

" Framed " Partitions, *101 

, Joints for, *101, 102 

Partitions, *78, 100, *109, 110 

, Joints for, *100 

Truss (see Roof) 
Try Square, *3 

, Use of, 327 

Trying-up Framing, *326, 327 

Trying Plane, *13 

Tunnel, Arch Centering for, 

280 

Turkey Oilstones, 23 
Turpin's Patent Wood-block 

Floor, *96 
Tusk Tenon Joints, *56, 67 
between Tie-beams, 

*125 

and Keyed Joint, *71 

Twist-nose Bits, *21 

Twisted Fibres in Timber, *41, 42 

Tympanum Panels, *538 



Upsets in Timber, *42 



Vaulting, Barrel, Centering for, 

*270-272 

, Groin, Centering for, *284-286 

Veneer for Geometrical Splayed 

Linings, *495, 496 
Veneered Splayed Linings to 

Opening with Circular Head, 

*503 
Venetian Sash Frames, *431-441 
, Double-weight, 437- 

439 . 
, Large, *439-441 



'279, 



INDEX. 



567 



Venetian Sash Frames, Solid 

Mullion, *431 
Vertical Scarf Joint, *59 
Vestibule Doors, *539 

Framing, Cornice for, *536 

, Panels of, *540 

, Pilasters of, *537, 539 

and Swing Doors, *531 

Screen, '-529, 530 

Vice, Instantaneous Grip, *7 

, Saw, *17 

Villa Roof, *163, 164 



W 



Wainscot Oak, 48 

, Dutch, 48 

Wainscoting, Panelled 
Wall Panelling and 

Cornice, *508-516 
Plate for Supportin 

*82 



K 507, 508 
Enriched 



Joists, 



Walls, Supporting Joists by, *82 
Waney Edges in Timber, *42 
Warrington Hammer, *18 
Washita Oilstones, 23, 24 
Weather-boarding, Timber for, 51, 

52 
Wedge Cramps, *9 
Wedging-up Sash Frames, *421, 422 

Two-panel Door, *331 

Wet Rot in Timber, 42 
White Deal, Baltic, 43, 44 
, Russian, 46 

Fir, 44 

■ Spruce, American, 47 

Wifsta Warfs' Quality Marks on 

Timber, 52, 53 
Wind-cracks in Timber, *42 
Window (see also Sash) 
Bay Dormer, *186 
Canted, Joiners' Rods for, 
300, 302 
Casement, *428-430, *443-446 

— , to Open Inwards, *443- 
446 

, Small, *430, 431 

Dormer *180-198 

, in Mansard Roof, *184, 

186 



Window, Dormer, in North 

Country Style, *187-196 

, , Stone Gabled, *196, 197 

, Elliptical, Centering for, '257 

, Elliptical-headed, *446-449 

, French Casement, to Open 

Inwards, *443-446 

, Projecting, "200 

Sills, Timber for, 52 

, Square, Joiners' Rods for, 

-297-299 

■ Stand for Spectators, *224 

.Supporting Upper Project- 
ing, *209 
Wood (see Timber) 
Wood-block Floors (see Floors) 
Wrought Clasp Nails, 24 



Yellow Deal, 43, 44 
Pine, American, 47 



Printed by 
Cassell and Company, Limited, La Belle Sauvage, 
London, E.C. 



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